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LIPPINCOTT'S 
EDUCATIONAL  SERIES 

EDITED  BY 

MARTIN  G.  BRUMBAUGH,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  PHILADELPHIA 

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Lippincott's  Elducational  Series 

EDITED    BY    DR.    M.  G.   BRUMBAUGH 
Sup>erintendent  of  Schools  Philadelphia 


VOLUME  I 

Thinking  and  Learning  to  Think 

By  Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  351  pages. 
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Two  Centuries  of  Pennsylvania  Hiftory 
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VOLUME  III 

Hiftory  of  Education 

By  E.  L.  Kemp,  A.M.,  Principal  of  State 
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sylvania.   385  pages.    Cloth,  I1.25. 

VOLUME  IV 

Kant's  Educational  Theory 

By  Edward  Franklin  Buckner,  Ph.D., 
Protessor  of  Philosophy  and  Education 
in  the  University  of  Alabama.  309  pages. 
Cloth,  $1.25. 

volume  V 

The  Recitation 

By  Samuel  Hamilton,  Ph.D.,  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Schools,  Allegheny 
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Lip  PIN  CO  tts  Ed  uca  tional  Series:  • .!. 


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THE    EDUCATIONAL 
PROCESS 


BY 

ARTHUR  CARY  FLESHMAN,  A.M. 

PEDAGOGY  AND  TRAINING,  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,   SLIPPERY  ROCK.   PA. 


The  Truth  shall  make  you  Frec^' 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

1908 


,«, •••  •      •     ,     • 

c        •     ••    •  •       •• 


Copyright,  1908 
Bt  J.  B.  LippiNCOTT  Company 


Published  July,  1908 


EDUCATION  OEV^ 


Electrotyped  and  printed  by 
J. B, LippincoU Company,  Philadelphia,  U.S.  A, 


IN  MEMORY 

OF 

MY  FATHER  and  MY  MOTHER 


543652 


L 


Ci-C 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 


"It  is  not  the  search  after  nor  discovery  of  new 
ideas  that  makes  an  original  man,  so  much  as  his 
ability  to  reclothe  the  old  with  some  newness  of 
appearance  or  meaning  out  of  his  own  individuality." 

This  book  attempts  to  organize  a  new  doctrine 
of  education  out  of  an  old  theory  of  thought.  The 
peculiar  method  of  treatment  is  original  but  the 
fundamental  principle  creating  and  organizing  the 
educational  process  is  the  central  truth  of  all  phi- 
losophy. The  trichotomy  running  through  this  text 
is  largely  a  necessary  form  of  thought  but  it  is  at 
the  same  time  a  convenient  mode  of  discussion. 
Each  threefold  division  is  organically  related  to 
every  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  systematic 
whole.  The  sub-topics  throughout  the  volume  are 
suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive. 

In  this  pedagogy  the  problems  of  education  are 
taken  out  of  the  domain  of  the  mechanical,  experi- 
mental, physiological,  physical  and  psycho-physical 
and  explained  as  a  spiritual  process.  Education  is 
a  spiritual  activity  rather  than  a  brain  activity. 
The  school  is  ''an  organic  spiritual  unity"  and  not 
a  material,  objective,  fixed  thing.  Teaching  is  not 
a  mechanical  process  but  a  spiritual  activity  beneath 
the  form.  Life  itself  is  not  wholly  physical  and  phys- 
iological but  in  the  last  analysis  a  spiritual  process. 

7 


8  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

Each  of  these  processes  is  grounded  in  and  arises 
out  of  a  universal  process.  The  heart-beat  of  the 
world  is  the  throbbing  life  of  the  school,  the  forma- 
tive energy  in  teaching,  and  the  germinal  element 
of  life.  The  total  educational  process  is  based  upon 
a  world  energy  transmuting  the  real  into  the  ideal 
and  the  objective  into  the  subjective.  This  creative 
energy  fills  the  pupil  with  a  force  which  enables 
him  to  work  out  actually  what  he  is  potentially — 
the  doctrine  of  self-realization  and  spiritual  freedom. 

A  philosophy  in  education  becomes  valuable  to 
the  teacher  in  proportion  as  it  reveals  the  inner  law 
of  the  school,  as  it  vitalizes  teaching,  and  as  it 
furnishes  the  key  which  unlocks  the  mysteries  of 
human  life.  According  to  this  fundamental  process 
in  education,  the  energy  which  holds  the  world 
together  is  the  force  which  unifies  teacher  and  pupil, 
organizes  mind  and  subject-matter  in  teaching  and 
creates  the  tension  of  human  life.  The  problem 
which  this  book  attempts  to  solve  is  to  trace  this 
energy  down  through  the  world,  through  the  school, 
through  the  teaching  process,  through  mind  and  life 
and  to  give  this  formative  principle  an  intense 
practical  application  in  school  management,  in 
teaching  the  common  branches  and  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  mind  and  life. 

The  model  lessons  are  analyzed  and  planned  in 
harmony  with  the  universal  process  and  are  thereby 
given  a  deep  significance.  These  type  studies  illus- 
trate the  fact  that  practice  is  in  and  through  theory 
and  that  theory  is  in  and  through  practice.     The 


AUTHOR^S  PREFACE  9 

purpose  of  these  lessons  is  to  assist  the  teacher  in 
applying  these  fundamental  truths  to  the  practical 
problems  of  the  daily  recitation. 

Pedagogy  is  not  a  conglomerate  science  of  Psy- 
chology, Philosophy,  Sociology,  Ethics,  ^Esthetics, 
Logic,  History,  Literature,  Science  and  Religion. 
This  pedagogical  doctrine  has  a  germinant  truth 
which  organizes  these  departments  of  knowledge 
into  a  new  and  systematic  whole.  Pedagogy  has 
its  own  creative  and  constructive  thought-force 
which  builds  up  an  original  science  out  of  the  above- 
named  material.  These  subjects  are  not  used  in  a 
haphazard  manner  but  only  to  elaborate  the  ger- 
minant idea  and  to  illustrate  and  perfect  the  central 
thought. 

In  constructing  this  doctrine  of  education,  I  do 
not  claim  originality  in  the  philosophy  embodied  in 
the  text.  I  have  followed  closely  the  great  thinkers 
of  the  world,  ancient  and  modern  and  their  inter- 
preters and  have  incorporated  into  this  text  those 
ideas  and  systems  of  thinking  bearing  directly  upon 
the  central  thought  of  this  theory  and  practice  of 
pedagogy.  My  discussion  of  spiritual  freedom  is 
based  wholly  upon  one  of  the  great  books  of  the 
world.  I  have  trespassed  upon  many  systems  of 
thought  but  have  attempted  to  reclothe  these  ideas 
with  a  newness  of  meaning  drawn  from  actual 
experience  in  the  school-room.  There  is  a  purposive 
repetition  of  thought  throughout  the  text  to  keep 
constantly  before  the  mind  the  fundamental  process 
in  education. 


10  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  W.  W.  Black  of  the  Chicago 
Normal  School  for  reading  the  manuscript  and  mak- 
ing many  valuable  suggestions  and  criticisms. 

Arthur  C.  Fleshman. 

State  Normal  School,  Slippery  Rock,  Pa. 
June  1,  1908. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


Philosophy,  in  a  purely  speculative  way,  observes 
the  operations  of  the  soul,  and  endeavors  to  explain 
these  operations  in  terms  of  law  or  method.  When 
any  considerable  group  of  mental  acts  is  found  to 
possess  common  attributes,  that  group  is  set  aside 
as  a  science.  As  organized  data  it  is  accepted  for 
human  guidance.  Thus  science  is  all  the  while 
growing  at  the  expense  of  philosophy.  But  the 
unorganized  and  unrelated  data  lying  everywhere 
in  the  philosopher's  workshop  still  affords  abundant 
exercise  for  speculation.  There  is  no  likelihood  that 
the  philosopher  will  lack  for  data.  Then,  too,  if 
all  phenomena  were  fully  catalogued,  there  would 
yet  remain  to  the  speculative  thinker  many  funda- 
mental problems  upon  which  for  all  time  he  may 
profitably  exercise  his  reflective  insight. 

Thus  philosophy  is  a  constant  norm  in  the  world 
of  thought.  By  it  all  tentative  schemes  of  thought 
are  tested.  To  it  all  systems  of  thought  are  referred 
for  final  orientation  and  validation. 

Education,  like  a  score  of  kindred  studies,  is  a 
derivative  of  philosophy,  and  the  value  and  sig- 
nificance of  referring  one's  educational  doctrine  to 
its  philosophic  basis  is  apparent.  This  treatise  is 
one  of  a  group  of  kindred  studies.  The  value  of  any 
attempt  to  formulate  a  pedagogical  theory  lies  in 

11 


12  EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

the  following  directions:  (a)  It  compels  its  readers 
to  go  over,  once  more,  the  subtle  and  suggestive 
relations  between  pure  and  applied  thought,  (b)  It 
should  aim  to  make  more  lucid  than  do  former 
treatises  this  relation,  (c)  Its  value  to  the  educator 
is  conditioned  upon  the  system  of  speculative 
thought  upon  which  it  rests  for  its  validity. 

It  is  apparent  that  one  does,  in  applied  fields 
of  knowledge,  his  best  work  when  he  comprehends 
most  fully  the  rational  basis  and  the  essential 
relations  of  his  procedures.  We  do  best  what  we 
understand  most  completely.  Otherwise  the  em- 
piricist and  the  *^ quack''  would  lead  the  world's 
progress.  Teachers  need  to  see  clearly  and  funda- 
mentally the  movements  of  thought  which  in  the 
instructional  act  they  aim  to  develop.  This  gives 
rise  to  vision,  the  teleologic  spirit,  without  which 
all  teaching  is  aimless  and  futile. 

Teachers  deal  so  constantly  with  concrete  matter, 
are  so  environed  with  unorganized  thought-stuff, 
are  so  continually  living  in  the  realm  of  devices  and 
special  methods  that  it  is  easy  for  them  to  overlook 
the  more  subtle  but  none  the  less  significant  guidance 
that  philosophy  affords.  It  is  well  to  pause  betimes 
and  ask  ^^why"  and  '^whither."  The  answer  must 
come  from  philosophy.  Speculative  thought  alone 
can  give  adequate  account  of  the  reason  for  our 
educational  processes,  and  indicate  in  some  fairly 
definite  way  the  goal  of  all  intellectual  endeavor. 

The  justification  of  this  new  statement  of  the 
basis  of  educational  procedure  is  conditioned  largely 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE  13 

by  its  clearness  of  statement  and  its  simplicity  of 
treatment.  Students  of  education  should  be  able 
readily  to  comprehend  the  author's  meaning.  The 
need  is  not  so  much  for  another  statement  as  for  a 
more  lucid  statement  of  the  fundamental  doctrines 
that  condition  and  make  meaningful  the  processes 
of  the  school. 

Many  systems  of  speculative  thought  have  been 
formulated.  These  necessarily  vary  greatly  both  in 
scope  and  in  method  of  treatment.  From  the  days 
of  Plato  until  now  philosophic  systems  of  one  sort 
or  another  have  challenged  attention  and  influenced 
the  student  of  pedagogy.  These  systems  of  philoso- 
phy have  run  the  circle  of  materialism  and  idealism. 
They  are  as  unlike  and  as  confusing  as  are  the 
teaching  processes  of  untrained  teachers. 

Germany,  better  perhaps  than  any  other  modern 
state,  has  produced  philosophic  minds.  Naturally, 
the  student  of  pedagogy  seeks  in  modern  German 
thought  a  basis  for  his  attempt  to  formulate  rational 
guidance  for  teachers.  Among  these  German  phi- 
losophers it  is  customary  to  select  Hegel  as  guide 
and  master.  This  is  due  to  his  radical  departure 
from  Fichte  and  Schelling  in  denying  reality  to 
both  the  subject  and  the  object  and  in  proclaiming 
that  ideas  are  the  only  concrete  realities.  It  follows 
that  the  first  matter  of  moment  is  pure  thought, 
the  infinite  idea.  This  idea  later  objectifies  itself 
in  nature,  and  then  the  idea  regresses,  turns  upon 
itself,  is  perceived  by  the  mind  to  be  after  all  a 
product  or  process  of  its  own  activity.     Thus,  as 


14  EDITOR^S  PREFACE 

pure  thought,  the  idea  goes  forth,  like  the  dove  from 
the  ark,  only  to  return  to  complete  unity  and 
identity  with  itself.  This  circle  being  complete  it  is 
a  relatively  simple  matter  to  trace  the  idea  in  its 
circle  and  to  predicate  spiritual  unity,  identity,  to 
the  idea  in  all  its  wanderings  from  itself  to  itself 
again. 

Pedagogy  seizes  eagerly  upon  this  round  of  the 
idea  and,  balancing  its  status  in  its  objective  form 
with  its  status  in  its  radically  ideal  or  subjective 
form,  erects  a  system  of  applied  thought  which  has 
peculiar  charm.  Since  this  Hegelian  idealism  is  so 
remote  from  sense  realism  it  is  comparatively  easy 
to  frame  up  a  system  of  applied  thought  in  a  fairly 
definite  and,  at  times,  almost  dogmatic  way.  There 
are  no  actual  experiences  near  enough  the  circle 
to  disturb  the  harmony  of  the  thought  movement. 

The  danger  lies  in  its  very  perfection.  It  is 
difficult  for  the  ordinary  teacher  to  see  the  applica- 
tion of  all  this  brilliant  balancing  of  thought-school 
and  real-school,  just  as  it  is  likely  to  be  difficult 
for  those  who  do  see  the  beauty  of  the  theme  to 
actualize  it,  make  it  real  with  flesh-and-blood  chil- 
dren in  an  ordinary  public  school. 

But  the  effort  to  reduce  one's  ideas  to  a  system 
is  well  worth  while.  Each  lives  an  experience  that 
is  unique.  Philosophy  is  the  test  of  this  experience. 
Only  in  the  realm  of  reflective  thought  do  we  find 
the  basis  for  common  understanding  and  that  unity 
of  meaning  that  makes  for  system  and  progress  in 
teaching.    We  lose  the  best  things  in  our  experience 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE  15 

when  we  fail  to  make  lucid  and  meaningful  that 
experience  in  terms  of  law,  in  formulae  for  guidance. 
Teachers  need  a  clear  grasp  of  a  system  of  pedagogic 
principles  before  entering  upon  the  actual  work  of 
instruction.  This  grasp  of  a  theoretic  system  enables 
the  young  teacher  to  grow  by  reflecting  upon  the 
concrete  experiences  of  his  daily  duties. 

The  tension  between  one^s  real  and  one's  ideal, 
the  awareness  of  failure  to  achieve  in  practice  what 
one  visions  in  thought,  is  on  the  side  of  the  will 
called  conscience;  on  the  side  of  the  intellect  it 
may  be  called  interest.  Intellectual  advance  is 
thus  seen  to  depend  upon  a  vivid  realization  of  the 
gap  between  one's  theory  and  one's  practice. 

One's  practice  cannot  rise  above  one's  theory. 
To  have  no  theory  is  to  invite  failure  at  the  outset. 
To  erect  a  high  ideal,  to  establish  an  advanced 
theory  is  to  make  possible  skillful  teaching.  It  is 
the  constant  approach  in  practice  to  one's  standards 
in  thought  that  gives  inspiration  to  teaching,  that 
makes  for  large  issues  in  the  realm  of  the  school. 
One's  theory  must  not  rise  too  high  above  one's 
experience  lest  the  tension,  the  awareness  of  the 
gap,  lead  to  discouragement  and  despair.  For  that 
reason  it  is  always  wise  to  couple  with  one's  training 
in  the  theory  of  pedagogics  actual  practice  in  teach- 
ing. This  practice  gives  one  a  personal  experience 
to  be  tested  and  formulated  after  the  fashion  of 
one's  theory,  and  it  also  gives  one  the  only  possible 
data,  that  of  experience,  by  which  to  test  the  valid- 
ity, the  workableness  of  one's  theory.     The  more 


16  EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

varied  and  real,  and  the  less  artificial  and  make- 
believe  this  experience  is,  the  more  valuable  it 
becomes  when  organized  into  theoretic  guidance. 
The  person  who  evolves  a  theory  of  education, 
no  matter  how  coherent,  gives  little  sympathy  and 
affords  less  guidance  to  growing  teachers  unless 
that  theory  is  found  to  organize  and  make  mean- 
ingful the  vast  sum  of  concrete  data  given  by  actual 
experience  in  teaching  an  ordinary  school.  This 
volume  is  an  attempt  to  explain  this  data  of  experi- 
ence in  terms  of  law  and  of  philosophic  guidance. 
The  author  has  had  an  extended  discipline  both  in 
the  theory  and  in  the  practice  of  educational  things, 
and  presents  in  this  volume  his  best  thought  as 
guidance  for  those  who  possess  the  hunger  to  know 
the  meaning  of  every  act  of  the  teacher  in  terms 
of  purpose  and  in  formula  of  law. 

M.  G.  B. 

January  20, 1908. 


CONTENTS 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

PAGE 

A.  THE  SCHOOL  PROCESS 19 

(a)  The  Creative  Process 19 

1.  The  Spiritual 19 

2.  The  Teacher 29 

3.  The  Pupil 39 

(b)  The  Instructive  Process 49 

1 .  The  Organization 49 

2.  The  Recitation 59 

3.  The  Curriculum; 74 

(c)  The  Humanistic  Process 86 

1.  The  Social 86 

2.  The  ^sthetical 98 

3.  The  Ethical 113 

B.  THE  TEACHING  PROCESS 130 

(a)    The  Growth  Process 130 

1.  The  Movement 130 

2.  The  Method 156 

3.  The  Purpose 180 

(6)     The  Thinking  Process 190 

1.  The  Law 190 

2.  The  Development 210 

3.  The  Doctrine 237 

(c)    The  Life  Process 256 

1.  The  Problem 256 

2.  The  Tension 265 

3.  The  Interpretation 273 

C.  THE  UNIVERSAL  PROCESS 283 

(a)  The  Logical  Process:  Idea 283 

(b)  The  Cosmic  Process:   Nature 293 

(c)  The  Spiritual  Process:  Mind 301 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 326 

INDEX 331 

17 


}   .»• ^ ) 


The  Educational  Process 


THE  SCHOOL  PROCESS 

THE    CREATIVE    PROCESS 

I. 
THE  SPIRITUAL 

The  School  is  created  by  a  spiritual  force  which 
unifies  teacher  and  pupil.  The  spiritual  (nous, 
mind,  thought,  reason,  ego)  is  the  generative  princi- 
ple of  the  world,  and  the  essence  and  truth  of  nature. 
It  is  in  its  vital  nature,  creative  and  constructive, 
and  is  the  active  element  of  all  thought  and  all 
things.  The  laws  of  thought  are,  therefore,  the 
laws  of  things.  ^^The  secret  of  the  mind  is  the 
secret  of  the  universe. '^ 

The  Nature  of  Spirit. — It  is  the  nature  of  spirit 
and  spiritual  organizations  to  thirst  after  ideal 
attainments.  There  is  an  energy  in  spirit  known 
as  ''potential  infinitude''  which  perpetually  strug- 
gles for  the  highest  good.  The  spiritual  unifying 
principle  of  the  school  is  a  subtle  force  which  not 
only  knits  teacher  and  pupil  together,  but  has  the 
power  of  transforming  the  natural  pupil  into  a 
thinking  being.  There  is  an  activity  in  and  through 
the  pupil  which  transmutes  him  into  the  realm  of 

19 


,1?0.;.    .    THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

law,  order,  and  reason  which  is  his  other,  ideal  and 
true  self.  The  school  exhibits  spirit  as  a  process  of 
working  out  through  the  teacher  and  subject-matter 
all  the  potentiality  found  in  the  undeveloped  child. 
To  understand  any  thing,  it  is  necessary  to  probe 
into  its  creative  energy  and  to  analyze  its  creative 
process.  To  grasp  the  inner  nature  of  the  school 
and  to  understand  its  creative  process,  we 
Creative         are  ushcrcd  into  a  study  of  spirit  itself. 

Energy 

One  of  the  knotty  problems  of  the  world 
is  to  gain  a  clear  conception  of  the  creative  power 
of  spirit.  However,  we  are  taught  that  its  chief 
function  is  to  separate  itself  from  itself  and  to 
make  itself  its  own  '^ polar  opposite.''  The  school 
created  by  an  organic  unity  of  teacher  and  pupil  is 
the  polar  opposite  of  mind.  It  is  also  the  nature  of 
spirit  not  only  to  create  its  otherness  (the  school) 
but  to  gain  its  freedom  by  a  return  from  this  creation 
to  itself  again.    J.  F.  K.  Rosenkranz  says: 

"  Mind  has  reality  only  in  so  far  as  it  produces  it  for  itself." 

Spirit  stamps  its  own  nature  upon  the  school  in 
the  creative  act  and  produces  in  the  spiritual  organ^ 
ism  an  activity  akin  to  itself. 

The    living    spirit    not    only    creates   the 

The  ,  , 

Formative  school,  but  is  the  formative  prmciple  of 
all  things.  Whatever  is,  is  mind,  thought, 
idea,  before  it  becomes  objective  reality.  The  mind 
pencil  exists  before  the  material  pencil.  The  ideal 
creates  the  real,  but  the  real  returns  upon  the  ideal 
and  performs  that  function  for  which  it  was  created. 


THE  SPIRITUAL  21 

The  house  exists  as  idea  before  it  springs  into  objec- 
tivity. Thought  molds  brick  and  mortar  into  a  house. 
If  it  were  possible  to  jerk  out  deftly  the  thought  in 
the  house,  it  would  return  to  brick  and  mortar. 
Ships  and  railroad  trains,  bridges  and  cities  are 
thoughts  externalized.  The  world  itself  is  a  thought 
of  God  made  objective,  and  all  science,  a  process  of 
unfolding,  developing,  and  learning  this  thought. 
In  the  last  analysis  the  school  and  the  world  are 
at  heart  one.  An  explanation  of  the  school  and, 
therefore,  of  all  educative  processes  rests  upon  the 
solid  rock  foundation  of  cosmic  philosophy.  universal 
So  far  as  we  know,  the  universe  is  a  crea-  Tensioa 
tive  energy  constantly  struggling  between  poten- 
tiality and  actuality.  This  universal  tension  found 
in  the  physical  world  is  transmitted  into  all  organic 
existence.  Within  the  plant  there  is  a  pent-up  force 
which  causes  it  to  struggle  for  higher  forms  of  life. 
The  animal  has  an  added  increment  of  life,  but  still 
possesses  the  same  tendencies  to  grow,  to  develop 
and  to  increase  in  size  and  strength.  In  addition  to 
this  same  world  energy  found  in  the  plant  and  the 
animal,  man  has  the  ability  to  set  up  his  own  ideals, 
and  by  force  of  mind  to  transmute  himself  into 
these  higher  possibilities.  He  has  the  ability  to 
create  an  educational  institution  which  he  uses  as  a 
means  of  self-realization.  The  school  is  analyzed 
into  the  spirit  of  the  teacher,  and  the  spirit  of  the 
pupil  unified  and  organized  by  the  spirit  of  the 
world,  the  creating,  originating,  pulse-beating,  har- 
monizing and  world-producing  energy. 


22  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  School  Organism. — The  inner  nature  of  the 
school  is  found  to  be  the  ultimate  principle  of  the 
world.  The  laws  of  nature  and  the  inner  law  of 
the  school  are  spiritual  and  can  be  grasped  by 
thought  only.  Natural  laws  are  great  spiritual 
threads  running  through  the  universe  which  make 
it  thinkable.  If  nature  were  without  law  or  reason, 
it  would  be  unknown  to  the  human  mind.  Since 
knowledge  is  possible,  mind  finds  itself  in  all  reality, 
physical,  institutional  and  educational. 

Both  the  school  and  nature  are  governed  by  law 
or  reason.  A  natural  law  and  the  law  of  the  school 
may  each  be  defined  as  an  observed  order  of  facts. 
In  nature  the  flower  blooms  and  the  tree 
puts  forth  its  leaves.  In  the  school  there 
is  an  organic  spiritual  unity  of  teacher  and  pupil. 
The  human  mind  is  not  satisfied  with  uniformity  in 
nature  and  in  the  school,  but  seeks  a  cause  which 
explains  this  constant  order  of  things. 

The  keen  intellect  of  Newton  demonstrated  in 
mathematical  and  physical  terms  ('^directly  as  the 
mass  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance'') 
the  action  of  force  which  is  the  root-idea 
of  law.  Force  is  a  form  of  thought  and  a 
form  of  things  and  is  the  inherent  nature  of  the 
school  organism.  The  educator  is  struggling  to 
ascertain  the  nature  and  action  of  this  spiritual  force 
which  is  the  creating,  controlling  and  organizing 
factor  of  the  school. 

To  understand  the  final  cause  or  doctrine  of  the 
school  and  nature,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  that 


THE  SPIRITUAL  23 

phase  of  law  which  has  for  its  object,  the 
accomplishment  of  a  function  or  pur- 
pose. The  flower  blooms  that  its  species  may  be 
perpetuated.  The  spiritual  creates  the  school  that 
it  may  realize  its  essence, — freedom.  Spirit  not 
only  produces  itself  in  the  school,  but  attains  its 
freedom  in  its  otherness. 

The  thought  of  unfolding  the  spiritual  nature  of 
the  child  creates  the  school.  The  objective  school 
returns  upon  the  thought  school  and  accomplishes 
the  purpose  of  its  creation.  The  external  objective 
school  is  a  means  between  a  thought  and  school 

its  realization.  Thought  or  reason  is  the  essence  of 
the  school  and  the  material,  objective,  fixed  school 
is  merely  an  auxiliary  factor  in  the  process.  The 
mind  school  exists  before  the  matter  school. 

Some  educational  thinkers  are  materialists  and 
believe  that  the  objective  school  is  the  real  thing 
itself.  Materialism  teaches  that  matter  seeks  a 
central  point,  and  if  it  realizes  its  ideal,  it  perishes. 
Idealism  teaches  that  the  essence  of  spirit  is  freedom, 
and  that  its  realization  is  life  and  activity.  The 
materialist  thinks  the  school  as  dead;  the  ideahst, 
as  living,  growing  and  developing.  According  to 
the  doctrine  of  identity  the  material  school  is  in 
and  through  the  spiritual,  and  the  ideal  school  is 
in  and  through  the  material. 

Perhaps  the  deepest  truth  found  in  the  study  of 
the  school  is  the  fact,  that  the  principle  which 
creates  the  school  is  the  subject-matter  of  all  studies 
in  the  school.     The  thought  or  reason  in  science. 


24  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

history,  literature,  and  other  subjects  is  at  the  same 
time  the  creative  energy  which  produces  the  school. 
That  force  lurking  in  the  school  organism  which 
causes  it  to  come  into  existence  and  to  grow,  is 
the  same  energy  (in  nature)  which  creates  the 
plant,  the  animal,  society,  the  state,  and  the  church, 
and  causes  them  to  grow  and  to  develop  into  higher 
forms  of  existence.  In  each  there  is  a  struggle 
The  Inner  bctwecn  the  real  and  the  ideal,  the  poten- 
struggie  ^-^j  ^^^  ^Yie  actual,  and  between  what  is 
and  what  ought  to  be.  The  unity  between  the  ideal 
and  the  actual,  the  individual  and  the  universal  is 
never  attained,  but  it  is  still  the  goal  (gold)  of  all 
human  endeavor.    H.  S.  Nash  says: 

'*  The  may-be  and  the  cmght-to-be  gather  in  force  on  the  frontiers 
of  the  is  to  daunt  and  disturb  it." 

This  tension  is  the  heart  of  the  world  and  the 
life  of  the  school.  Through  this  struggle  the  real 
school  is  striving  constantly  to  become  the  ideal 
school,  and  the  real  pupil,  the  ideal  scholar. 

The  school  is  a  spiritual  process  of  working  out 
actually  through  the  teacher  what  the  pupil  is 
potentially.  The  school,  society  and  the  state  are 
conditions  in  which  freedom  is  realized.  The  spirit- 
Freedom  ^3-1  creates  and  organizes  the  school  and 
Realized  brcathcs  iuto  it  the  life  of  reason.  The 
objective  school  is  a  means  by  which  the  spiritual 
attains  its  final  purpose.  It  is  spatial  and  is  the  em- 
bodiment of  rational  freedom  realizing  and  recognizing 
itself  in  the  objective  school-house  and  school-plant. 


THE  SPIRITUAL  25 

The  spiritual  energy  creating  the  school  is  a 
similar  process  to  the  vital  energy  creating  the  oak. 
The  productive  energy  of  the  school  is  as  essential 
to  its  growth  and  development  as  the  germinal 
matter  of  the  acorn  is  necessary  to  the  growth  of 
the  oak  tree.  In  order  that  the  acorn  may  germinate 
it  requires  soil,  rain  and  sunshine.  That  the  school 
may  grow  and  function  properly  requires  a  teacher 
and  a  pupil  as  essential  factors  and  the  objective 
school  as  the  non-essential.  The  school  is  an  endoge- 
nous organism  growing  and  developing  from  within. 
The  law  of  its  being  originates  from  within  ,j,^^ 

and  is  not  externally  imposed.  The  inner  inner  Law 
law  of  the  school  is  created  by  an  organic  spiritual 
unity  of  the  essential  factors.  To  understand  this 
law  and  to  follow  its  precepts  require  a  close  study 
of  the  unified  action  of  the  mind  of  the  teacher  and 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  in  the  educational  process. 
The  school  organism  is  an  institution  by  which  the 
individual  pupil  attains  the  consciousness  of  his 
own  freedom. 

Unity  in  Difference. — The  spiritual  is  the  cen- 
tral factor  of  the  creative  process  of  the  school 
and  binds  the  other  two  elements,  teacher  and 
pupil,  into  a  unity  presupposed  in  their  difference. 
These  organic  elements  could  not  be  linked  together, 
were  there  no  common  nature  binding  them.  A 
pupil  is  a  distinct  entity  from  the  teacher,  pupn  and 
but  at  the  same  time  essentially  related  Teacher 
through  the  mutual  element  of  spirituality.  The 
consciousness  of  a  pupil  is  inseparately  related  to 


26  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  consciousness  of  a  teacher,  for  an  individual  does 
not  become  pupil  only  in  relation  to  teacher.  We 
know  pupil  only  in  organic,  spiritual  unity  with 
teacher  and  a  teacher  cannot  exist  only  in  relation 
to  an  individual  to  be  taught.  This  relation  which 
binds  the  two  together  is  a  spiritual  force  and 
cannot  be  ascertained  by  sense-perception,  but  by 
a  process  of  thought. 

The  two  essential  factors  of  the  school  gravitate 
toward  a  third  which  embraces  both  and  constitutes 
their  ultimate  existence.  The  pupil  is  essentially 
distinguished  yet  organically  related  to  the  teacher. 
Each  has  no  meaning  except  in  opposition  to  the 
Ultimate  othcr  and  no  significance  apart  from  the 
^"'^^  other.    The  ultimate  meaning  of  teacher  is 

wrapped  up  in  pupil,  and  the  essential  nature  of 
pupil  is  in  and  through  teacher.  We  are  finally  led 
to  think  of  the  two  vital  elements  of  the  school  as  a 
manifestation  of  a  higher  third.  This  third  realizes 
itself  by  uniting  its  otherness  in  a  bond  of  activity 
constituting  the  school.  Recognizing  pupil  and 
teacher  as  ''indivisible  yet  necessarily  opposed,  as 
incapable  of  identification  yet  necessarily  related, 
we  are  forced  to  seek  the  secret  of  their  being  in  a 
higher  principle,  of  whose  unity  they  in  their  action 
and  reaction  are  the  manifestation."  Their  dis- 
tinction is  found  in  their  relation  and  their  inde- 
pendence in  their  connection.  ''Hence,  we  are 
compelled  to  think  of  them  both  as  rooted  in  a  still 
higher  principle,  which  is  at  once  the  source  of  their 
relatively   independent   existence    and   the   all-em- 


THE  SPIRITUAL  27 

bracing  unity  that  limits  their  independence." 
This  eternal  principle  is  the  spiritual,  which,  in  its 
highest  manifestation,  is  the  source  of  mankind 
and  binds  human  beings  together  in  an  educational 
institution.  The  school  organism  presupposes  a 
germinal  principle  which  organizes  and  differenti- 
ates, which  is  life  giving,  and  which  moves  the 
institution  created  to  realize  itself. 

Race  Experience. — The  Orientals  do  not  under- 
stand that  spirit  is  free.  The  consciousness  of 
spiritual  freedom  first  arose  among  the  Greeks. 
However,  the  ancient  Greek  spirit  was  not  entirely 
free,  but  depended  upon  the  impression  and  stimu- 
lus of  nature.  Their  thinking  was  conditioned  by 
coming  in  contact  with  the  natural.  They  listened 
to  the  murmuring  fountains  and  gave  objective 
existence  a  subjective  meaning.  The  Greek  spirit 
was  not  only  observant  but  creative,  not  only  per- 
ceptive but  interpretative.  It  had  the  power  to 
comprehend  the  meaning  of  the  external  world  and 
to  translate  it  into  terms  of  intellectual  and  spiritual 
activity.  The  Greek  spirit  is  not  self-  Evolution 
determining,  not  yet  absolutely  free,  but  ^^^^^eedom 
must  rely  upon  nature  to  give  the  impulse  to  thought. 
The  element  of  subjectivity  not  realized  by  the 
Greeks  was  found  among  the  Romans.  This  people 
represent  the  dawn  of  the  principle  of  subjective 
inwardness.  The  mind  now  turns  in  upon  itself 
and  becomes  abstract  and  universal.  A  political 
constitution  is  placed  over  the  individual  which 
creates  personality,  legal  rights  and  private  property. 


28  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  creation  of  the  State  as  well  as  the  creation 
of  the  School  is  a  subjective  process  which  causes 
the  individual  to  retreat  into  the  inner  sanctum  of 
the  self  and  has  for  its  ultimate  purpose  spiritual 
freedom.  The  Germans,  influenced  by  Christianity, 
were  the  first  to  attain  the  consciousness  that  man 
as  such  is  free.  They  arrived  at  the  doctrine  that 
the  freedom  of  spirit  is  that  which  constitutes  its 
essence.  They,  therefore,  really  worked  out  the 
problem  that  the  school  is  to  the  pupil  what 
universal  history  is  to  the  race: 

"A  progress  in  the  consciousness  of  Freedom." 

— G.  W.  F.  Hegel. 


II. 

THE  TEACHER 

The  School  is  a  spiritual  organism,  created  by 
the  teacher  unifying  himself  with  the  pupil  through 
the  thought  and  spirit  of  the  world.  It  is,  therefore, 
self-evident  that  the  ultimate  essence  of 
both  the  school  and  the  teacher,  is  thought. 
In  fact,  a  teacher  could  not  exist  without  being  the 
embodiment  of  reason,  for  a  thinking  mind  pre- 
supposes a  spiritual  principle  to  be  thought.  Subject 
without  object  is  unthinkable. 

''The  school  is  an  organic  spiritual  unity ^'  which 
grows  and  develops  by  the  inherent  power  of  reason 
which  is  not  only  the  life  of  the  world,  but  the 
essential  nature  of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  spiritual 
It  is  a  fundamental   law  of  spiritual  life  ^""'^^ 

that  thought  can  grow  only  by  coming  in  contact 
with  thought.  The  school  is  that  organic  process 
of  uniting  mind  with  mind,  of  fusing  soul  with  soul, 
and  of  unifying  life  with  life  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  strengthen  all  that  is  truest,  noblest,  and  best 
in  humanity. 

The  Function. — The  teacher  is  the  mediating, 
organizing,  and  directing  agency  between  the  pupil 
and  the  world  of  thought.  It  is  the  func-  Function 
tion  of  the  teacher  to  analyze,  to  system-  of  Teacher 
atize  and  to  present  the  subject  of  study  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  unfolding  order  of  the  subject  will 

29 


30  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

exactly  correspond  to  the  unfolding  order  of 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  be  taught.  The  teacher 
must  understand  the  logical  order  of  the  subject 
and  the  psychological  order  of  the  mind  to  be 
developed. 

The  teacher  finds  his  true  life  in  the  thought 
processes  of  the  world  as  embodied  in  all  branches 
of  study.  The  pupil  finds  his  better  self  in  the  life 
of  the  teacher  and,  finally  traces  out  the  thought  of 
the  world  through  the  modified  thought  processes 
of  the  teacher.  The  pupil  realizes  what  the  teacher 
Constant  idcalizes.  The  teacher  is  actually  what 
stress  -the  pupil  is  potentially.     What  the  pupil 

hopes  to  accomplish,  the  teacher  has  already  at- 
tained. The  teacher  has  realized  to-day  what 
thought  was  yesterday,  and  what  the  pupil  is 
struggling  to  attain  to-morrow.  There  is  a  constant 
stress  or  tension  between  the  thinking  teacher  and 
the  world  to  be  thought,  and  between  the  pupil 
thinking  the  thought  of  the  world  and  the  teacher 
thinking  the  thought  of  the  pupil. 

The  teacher  should  be  to  the  pupil  what  the  Great 
Stone  Face  was  to  Ernest.  As  Ernest  grew  into  the 
likeness  of  the  Great  Stone  Face,  so  should  the  pupil 
grow  into  the  ideal  character  of  the  true  and  noble 
teacher.  It  is  the  law  of  life  that  we  grow  into  the 
The  Law  ideal  which  the  soul  sets  up.  This  law  is 
Of  Life  ^Yie  fundamental  principle  of  human  life 

and  is  known  as  the  tension  between  the  real  and 
the  ideal,  between  what  is  and  what  ought  to  be. 
The  teacher  is  not  only  the  pupiFs  ideal,  but  he 


THE  TEACHER  31 

acts  as  a  powerful  incentive  in  drawing  the  pupil 
to  that  ideal.  In  fact  the  teacher  is  the  pupil's 
other  self,  the  better  self,  the  ideal  self,  and  should 
assist  that  self  as  he  would  help  himself. 

It  should  be  the  function  of  the  teacher  to  present 
every  lesson  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  exert  a 
dominant  influence  upon  the  spiritual  forces  of  the 
world.  The  thought  in  every  lesson  should  disturb 
the  mind  of  the  child,  give  him  new  ideals  and  new 
tendencies  in  life.    Every  lesson  should  be  Every 

taught  so  as  to  affect  the  whole  life  of  the  ^^^^"^ 

child.  Suppose  the  child  is  taught  to-day  that  heat 
expands  bodies.  This  truth  illuminates  his  mind 
perhaps  in  his  first  lesson  in  reading,  explains  the 
origin  and  nature  of  winds  and  ocean  currents 
in  geography,  and  gives  the  expert  scientist  the 
fundamental  principle  in  physics.  If  it  be  true,  that 
every  idea  disturbs  the  entire  life  of  the  child — and 
it  does — the  teacher  should  not  only  know  the  subject 
in  and  through  itself,  but  in  terms  of  the  pupil's 
life.  Unless  the  teacher  has  that  keen  insight  which 
enables  him  to  penetrate  into  the  dim  future  life 
of  the  pupil,  and  to  realize  the  ultimate  influence  of 
a  lesson,  he  has  neither  a  moral  nor  a  pedagogical 
right  to  assist  in  the  educative  process.  The  teacher 
must  see  arithmetic,  history  and  geography  as  an 
unfolding  process  in  the  life  of  the  pupil.  He 
must  be  able  to  resolve  lessons  and  subjects 
into  the  mental  processes  of  the  pupil  and  to 
bring  them  into  unity  with  the  pupil's  entire  life 
movement. 


32  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  Teacher's  Characteristics. — The  essential  char- 
acteristics of  the  teacher  are  aptness,  skill,  tact, 
insight,  enthusiasm,  sociability,  proper  tempera- 
ment, charming  personality,  ethical  refinement, 
personal  magnetism  and  knowledge  academic  and 
professional. 

The  apt  teacher  is  one  who  is  naturally  adjusted 
to  the  profession  and  whose  life  seems  to  be  in 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  school.  An  indi- 
vidual  having   an   aptitude  to  teach,   to 

Aptitude  i         •  •  1      i  1  .         • 

govern,   to   mspire    and   to   elevate   is    a 
jewel   of   the   first   order   and   certainly   has   some 
divine  guidance.     Aptness  is  a  characteristic  diffi- 
cult to  describe  but  invaluable  to  the  teacher.     A 
skillful  teacher  uses  the  means  and  mental  energy 
to  an  advantage  and  never  permits  the  mechanical 
phase  of  the  school  to  be  in  bondage  to  the  spiritual. 
The  skillful  teacher  becomes  tactful   by 
reducing  the  machinery  of  the  school  to 
the  minimum  and  operating  the  school  as  a  spiritual 
energy  to  the  end  of  spiritual  growth.     Skill  and 
tact    are    acquired    by    practice    in    and 
through    a    profound    knowledge    of    the 
teaching  process.    To  be  tactful  or  skillful  in  teach- 
ing one  must  realize  that  the  inner  nature  of  the 
school  is  a  spiritual  process  and  that  the  external 
phase  of  the  school  and  of  teaching  should  be  made 
to  harmonize  with  the  inner  life. 

No  teacher  can  be  successful  and  inspire  pupils 
who  is  not  enthusiastic.  Enthusiasm  in  the  pro- 
fession or  in  the  subject  taught  begets  enthusiasm. 


THE  TEACHER  33 

Without  enthusiasm,  some  one  says,  one  is 
already  dead.  There  may  be  perfunctory 
teaching  without  enthusiasm  but  no  teacher  devoid 
of  this  essential  attribute  will  ever  be  classed  among 
those  who  have  been  called  truly  great.  Observe  a 
room  in  the  presence  of  an  enthusiastic  teacher 
filled  with  the  missionary  spirit  and  notice  how  the 
pupils  are  controlled  as  if  by  magic.  A  lazy,  indif- 
ferent teacher,  although  a  profound  scholar,  will  be 
a  failure  in  the  school-room.  But  a  teacher  filled 
with  enthusiasm  and  having  a  keen  - 
insight  into  the  structure  of  the  school 
and  the  function  of  the  teaching  process  becomes  a 
past  master  in  the  profession.  The  teacher  attains 
insight  by  a  reflective  study  of  the  nature  of  the 
educational  process.  The  teacher  of  insight  is  the 
individual  who  has  a  philosophical  grasp  of  mind  in 
interaction  upon  matter.  It  is  a  growth  process  and 
is  attained  only  by  persistent  study  and  reflection. 
Sociability  is  a  charming  virtue  and  a  power- 
ful element  in  teaching  and  in  government,  and 
absolutely  necessary  to  a  successful  teacher.  A 
charming  personality  captivates  children, 
transforms  chaos  into  cosmos,  gives  beauty 
and  tone  to  the  school  and  is  a  most  potent  factor 
in  the  make  up  of  a  teacher.  The  social  teacher 
has  personal  magnetism  and  attracts  as  the  magnet. 
The  real  teacher  possesses  a  constitutional  capability 
that  baffles  description  and  definition.  The  artistic 
teacher  must  have  knowledge,  it  is  true,  but  he  must 
also  have  a  keen  insight  into  the  inner  structure 
3 


34  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  Real  ^^^  fuiiction  of  the  school.  Possessing 
Teacher  these  natural,  temperamental  capabili- 
ties and  having  a  well-trained  mind,  the  teacher  is 
fully  equipped  to  meet  the  problems  of  the  school. 
He  becomes  artistic  in  his  teaching  and  governs 
the  school  not  from  external  authority  but  from 
internal  spiritual  power.  The  teacher  has  not 
really  controlled  the  pupil,  has  not  made  him  free, 
until  he  has  caused  him  to  control  himself.  In  the 
light  of  reason,  which  is  the  supreme  principle  of 
both  the  world  and  the  school,  the  pupil  sets  up 
his  own  standard  of  conduct  and  through  his  own 
freedom  subjects  himself  to  the  inner  law  of  his 
being  which  is  also  the  absolute  law  of  the  universe. 
^  The  true  teacher  loves  the  profession,  loves  child 
^  life  and  has  the  power  and  ability  to  inspire  pupils 
to  higher  life  by  causing  them  to  study,  to  think, 
to  learn,  to  grow.  An  ideal  teacher  should  have  the 
creative  ability  of  an  artist,  the  profound  knowledge 
of  a  philosopher  and  an  attractive  and  pleasing 
personality.  To  obtain  the  ideal  of  ideals 
in  teaching,  the  teacher  should  acquire 
what  Cicero  sums  up  to  be  the  requisites  of  a  true 
orator,  namely:  '^The  acuteness  of  the  logician, 
the  subtilty  of  the  philosopher,  the  skillful  harmony 
of  a  poet,  the  memory  of  jurisconsult,  the  tragedian's 
voice,  and  the  gesture  of  the  most  skillful  actor.'' 
The  teacher  should  be  a  truth  seeker  and  truth 
lover.  Truth  has  been  defined  to  be  the  complete 
correspondence  of  the  objective  with  the  subjective. 
It  names  and  defines  reality,  that  which  is.     The 


THE  TEACHER  35 

mind  lives  and  grows  and  breathes  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  truth.  Every  truth  grasped  and  thought 
by  the  human  mind  adds  power  and  force  to  the 
individual.      A    true    teacher    must    be  ^mth 

devoted    to    truth,    devoted    to    study,  ^^^^"^ 

devoted  to  knowledge,  and  devoted  to  teaching. 
He  is  the  apostle  of  truth,  the  guardian  of  mind 
development,  and  the  cupbearer  of  intelligence. 
The  teacher  thinks  and  the  pupil  thinks,  the  teacher 
works  and  the  pupil  works,  the  teacher  is  devoted 
to  truth  '^For  Truth's  own  sake,''  and  the  pupil  is 
devoted  to  truth  for  the  teacher's  sake  and  for  his 
own  sake.  Truth  mirrors  goodness,  beauty  and  the 
divine  essence.  It  is  through  the  teacher  that  the 
pupil  gains  a  knowledge  of  truth  and  thereby  attains 
his  freedom. 

The  Professional  vs.  Academic  Training.  —  The 
teacher's  knowledge  differs  from  the  scholar's 
knowledge.  Academic  instruction  is  a  distinct  proc- 
ess from  professional  training.  The  former  ascer- 
tains the  facts,  relations,  forces,  processes  and  laws 
of  a  subject;  the  latter  sets  forth  the  mental  proc- 
esses found  in  learning  a  subject.  The  professional 
aspect  explains  the  mind's  way  of  thinking  grammar, 
history  and  other  subjects.  It  enables  the  teacher 
to  think  not  only  history  but  to  think  the  mind's 
way  of  thinking  history.  Academic  instruction  is 
a  single  mental  process  of  thinking  the  subject. 
Professional  training  is  a  double  mental  process  of 
thinking  the  subject  into  the  mind  of  the  child  and 
thinking  the  child's  mind  while  thinking  the  subject. 


36  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Professional  Professlonalism  requires  a  knowledge  of 
Training  ^]^g  psychology  of  the  subject  in  organic 
unity  with  the  psychology  of  the  mind.  The 
psychology  of  a  subject  is  not  something  added  to 
the  subject;  it  is  in  and  through  the  subject.  It 
is  the  necessary  step  which  the  mind  takes  in  learn- 
ing a  subject.  Professional  training  presupposes 
academic  knowledge.  It  is  impossible  to  think  how 
to  think  a  subject  without  first  thinking  the  subject. 
A  fact  is  a  fact  only  as  it  is  related  to  mind.  Some 
one  says: 

"A  fact  is  a  thing  made,  and  its  maker  is  a  process  of  thought, 
and  this  process  of  thought  is  a  functioning  mind. " 

Hence  academic  and  professional  knowledge  are 
in  organic  unity  and  both  necessary  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  teacher. 

To  teach  successfully  requires  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  subject-matter.  The  subject  must  be  known 
in  and  through  itself  and  in  terms  of  related  sciences. 
To  teach  English  grammar  in  the  most  successful 
manner  one  should  understand  rhetoric,  logic, 
psychology,  linguistics  and  philology.  To  know  a 
subject  and  to  be  able  to  teach  it  accurately  and 
successfully,  it  is  necessary  to  study  it  in  all  its 
relations.  Scholarship  or  general  knowl- 
edge is  the  first  requisite  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  teacher.  The  teacher  should  have  a 
knowledge  of  mathematics,  science,  history,  lan- 
guage, literature  and  art  before  specializing  in  any 
particular    subject.      Since    education    is    knowing 


THE  TEACHER  37 

something  of  everything  and  everything  of  some- 
thing, specialization  logically  follows  general  culture. 

In  addition  to  academic  knowledge  to  be  taught, 
a  teacher  must  make  a  study  of  pedagogy,  psychol- 
ogy, logic,  ethics,  sociology,  aesthetics,  philosophy 
and  the  history  of  education.  These  subjects  give 
the  student  what  is  generally  known  as  professional 
preparation  for  teaching.  Professional  training  also 
includes  observation  of  expert  teaching  and  actual 
practice  in  a  model  school.  Practice  in  teaching 
should  be  under  the  direction  of  an  educator  of  large 
training  and  experience  who  can  criticise  and  unify 
theory  and  practice.  The  student-teacher 
should  plan  his  own  lessons,  be  responsi- 
ble for  government  in  teaching,  and  be  permitted 
to  teach  under  normal  conditions.  An  ideal  Model 
School  is  one  in  which  the  teacher  initiates  and  puts 
into  practice  the  best  possible  theory  at  hand  and 
is  not  restrained  by  the  critic  teacher.  If  the  teach- 
ing is  not  in  harmony  with  the  best  educational 
doctrine,  then  the  critic  teacher  should  suggest  the 
proper  mode  of  procedure,  but  still  the  student- 
teacher  must  originate  his  own  lesson  plans. 

Professionalism  also  explains  the  nature  of  the 
physical  school.  The  outer  school  is  the  shell  in 
which  the  inner  spiritual  school  is  housed.  The 
physical  school  should  be  of  such  a  nature 

.  ,        .  ,  .  .  The  Inner 

as  to  assist  the  inner  school  m  performing         And  the 
its   true    function.      The    inner    unity   of 
teacher  and  pupil  determines  the  size  of  the  school- 
room and  the  class  to  be  taught,  explains  the  mean- 


38  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

ing  of  school  hygiene  and  school  decoration  and 
gives  the  key  to  school  management.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  school-room,  the  text-books  and  appa- 
ratus are  physical  means  of  spiritual  activity. 
When  the  physical  school  is  equipped  to  harmonize 
with  the  inner  law  of  the  school,  then  the  ideal  will 
attain  its  freedom  in  the  real.  The  material  school 
becomes  the  universal  school  and  freedom  in  teach- 
ing has  been  realized.  The  freedom  which  the 
teacher  has  attained,  is  the  ideal  school  properly 
functioning  in  the  real.  The  struggle  is  now  ended; 
peace  and  comfort  are  secured;  ideal  teaching 
becomes  actual;  the  potential  develops  into  the 
real;  what  ought  to  be,  is.  This  unification  of  the 
objective  and  subjective  school  is  rarely  attained 
but  should  be  the  goal  sought  for  in  every  educative 
process. 


III. 

THE    PUPIL 

Thought  is  the  generative  principle  of  the  school; 
the  teacher  is  the  cooperating,  coordinating  and 
correlating  agency,  but  the  final  purpose  of  the 
school  is  the  spiritual  freedom  of  the  pupil.  The 
pupil  is  organically  related  to  the  teacher  by  means 
of  thought  and  grows  and  develops  into  spiritual 
life  in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  mental 
combat  between  the  teacher  and  pupil.  The  school 
may  be  defined  as  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  flashing 
across  the  rising  soul  of  the  pupil  in  streaks  of 
red,  living  thought  of  science,  literature,  art,  history, 
philosophy  and  other  subjects. 

The  School  Essence.  —  The  essential  nature  of 
the  school  is  spiritual  and  not  material.  If  it  were 
possible  to  tie  silk  threads  from  the  brain  of  each 
pupil  to  the  brain  of  the  teacher,  these 
threads  would  represent  the  school  from  a  Material 
materialistic  standpoint.  These  material 
threads  are  the  organizing  principle  and  hold  the 
school  intact.  The  brain,  however,  is  merely 
the  physical  basis  of  mind.  Brain  tied  to  brain 
does  not  constitute  a  school.  Education  is  not 
brain  development  so  much  as  spiritual  devel- 
opment. Perceiving,  imaging,  thinking,  learning 
and  knowing  are  not  brain  processes  but  mind 
processes. 

39 


40  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Since  the  school  has  been  defined  as  an  organic 

spiritual  process,  let  us,  therefore,  tie  the  minds  of 

the  pupils  to  the  mind  of  teacher  by  an  immaterial 

thread.     This  force  of  soul  fusing  with  soul,  this 

activity  of  mind  in  unity  with  mind  represents  in 

its  deepest  meaning  the  true  nature  of  the  school. 

The   constructive   principle    of   the   school   is   soul 

unity.     The  ultimate  essence  of  the  school  is  the 

^^^  living  unity  between  the  teacher  and  the 

Spiritual  taught  who  are  opposite  poles  of  the  same 
School  1 .  ,  ,       ,     , 

reality,  the  school,  but  yet  are  at  heart 

one.  The  thinking  mind  of  the  pupil  harmonizing 
with  the  thinking  mind  of  the  teacher,  creates  an 
institution  called  the  school.  However,  the  teacher 
rarely  has  the  power  to  think  the  pupils  together 
in  that  organic  unity  characteristic  of  the  true 
school.  The  connecting  link  becomes  broken. 
Pupils  are  in  the  school-room  but  out  of  school. 
They  may  be  materially  present  but  at  the  same 
time  spiritually  absent.  The  heart  of  the  school 
is  found  in  neither  the  pupil  nor  the  teacher.  The 
inner  sanctum  sanctorum  of  the  school  is  neither  the 
spirit  of  the  teacher  nor  the  spirit  of  the  pupil  but  the 
two  unified  and  organized  into  one  vitalizing  power. 
In  the  last  analysis  of  the  school  the  pupil  sets 
up  his  own  ideal  and  strives  to  transform  his  real 
into  his  ideal  self.  The  heart  of  the  school  is  finally 
School-  located  in  the  soul  of  the  pupil  struggling 

Essence  f^j.  gelf-realization.  The  process  of  trans- 
forming the  real  into  the  ideal  and  making  every 
ideal  a  stepping  stone  to  a  real  is  the  school-essence. 


THE  PUPIL  41 

The  teacher  assists  in  the  educational  process,  but 
the  pupiFs  self-evolution  is  accomplished  by  his 
own  spiritual  activity. 

The  cosmic  principle  is  again  seen  to  be  the  heart 
of  the  school.  There  is  a  world  energy  which  trans- 
forms the  possible  into  the  actual.  Scientists  tell 
us  that  this  universal  force  is  transmuted  worid 

into  all  organic  life.     Since  the  school  is  Energy 

an  organic  institution,  its  inner  law,  the  tension 
between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  is  at  last  trans- 
ferred into  the  life  and  struggle  of  the  pupil.  This 
life-evolving  principle,  inherent  in  the  child,  ulti- 
mately becomes  the  inner  essence  of  the  school. 

It  has  been  said,  as  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school, 
but  a  more  fundamental  maxim  would  be,  as  is  the 
pupil,  so  is  the  school.  The  pupil  is  the  central 
factor  of  the  school  around  which  all 
other  agencies  cluster.  The  school  fund, 
the  school-house,  the  teacher,  the  apparatus  and 
the  school  authorities  all  cooperate  toward  the  self- 
realization  of  the  pupil.  The  whole  educational  proc- 
ess tends  to  the  advancement  and  freedom  of  the 
individual  pupil.  The  old  theory  that  the  teacher 
is  the  school,  must  be  replaced  by  the  more  modern 
and  fundamental  theory  that  the  pupil  is  the  school. 

School  Jlanagement. — If  this  reasoning  be  cor- 
rect, then  all  school  government  should  be  pupil 
self-government.  If  the  school  is  evolved  p^pu  seif- 
out  of  the  inner  consciousness  of  the  Government 
pupil,  then  it  would  be  logical  and  psychological  to 
conclude  that  he  and  he  alone  should  control  the 


42  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

management  of  the  school.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated in  recent  years,  that  a  school  can  be  so 
taught  that  it  will  become  self-governing.  As  soon 
as  the  pupil  comes  in  contact  with  the  community 
life  of  the  school,  he  should  be  taught  that  he  can 
and  must  assist  in  controlling  the  school.  Pupil 
self-government  comes  from  within  rather  than  from 
without.  It  is  created  by  subjective  thinking  and 
not  by  external  authority.  By  means  of  friendly 
discussions  concerning  school  government,  the  pupil 
soon  realizes  the  importance  and  duty  of  self-con- 
trol. He  finally  considers  it  a  privilege  and  a  duty 
which  he  owes  to  the  community  life  of  the  school 
to  help  others  to  control  themselves. 

Democratic  school  government  should  not  be 
thrust  upon  pupils,  but  should  be  the  outgrowth 
of  days  and  months  of  careful  consideration  and 
explanation  of  the  nature  and  art  of  school  manage- 
ment. Pupils  should  be  taught  that  the  school  is 
an  organic  spiritual  unity  existing  between  teacher 
and  pupil  and  when  a  pupil  whispers  in  school  or 
bolts  a  recitation  he  has  spiritually  cut  himself 
loose  from  the  school.  As  the  pupil  is  the  focal 
centre  of  the  school  he  through  his  own  volition  can 
and  may  destroy  it.  He  can  do  that  which  if  done 
by  all  pupils  would  annihilate  the  institution.  As 
the  offence  is  internal  and  spiritual,  the 

Outer  Deed 

Versus  punishmeut  should  be  inner  and  not  outer. 

As  he  spiritually  cuts  himself  loose  from 
the  school,  he  must  be  spiritually  and  not  cor- 
porally  punished.      Lead    him    to    see    his    error. 


THE  PUPIL  43 

Let  him  meditate  a  day  or  two  without  reciting. 
The  teacher  might  have  him  write  a  composition 
on  whispering  or  bolting  in  order  that  he  may- 
see  clearly  his  mistake.  The  pupil  carefully  analyzes 
the  offence  and  finally  concludes  that  the  outer 
deed  is  but  an  externalization  of  an  inner  spiritual 
condition.  The  pupil  is  a  spiritual  member  of  the 
school  and  when  he  breaks  the  unity  with  the 
teacher  and  the  school  he  must  by  an  act  of  his  own 
mind  restore  the  broken  unity.  When  a  pupil 
commits  a  wrong  deed  it  should  be  his  duty  and 
not  the  teacher's  to  right  the  wrong.  Since  the 
school  is  a  spiritual  organization  the  pupil  and  not 
the  teacher  can  restore  this  broken  unity  by  think- 
ing himself  into  harmony  with  the  life  of  the  school. 
Suppose  after  the  pupil  has  struggled  sometime,  he 
does  not  right  the  wrong.  What  is  the  ultimatum? 
How  about  corporal  punishment  or  expulsion  from 
school?  Suppose  some  one  should  enter  the  school- 
room, upset  the  stove  and  throw  the  blackboard 
out  the  window.  What  should  be  done?  The 
school  would  be  destroyed  by  either  act,  and  each 
should  be  punished  corporally  perhaps,  expelled 
perhaps,  but  brought  under  subjection  to  law, 
kindly  if  possible,  harshly  if  necessary.  Then  is 
pupil  self-government  a  failure?  Is  the  moral  law 
a  failure?  Neither  is  a  failure,  but  each  embraces 
the  highest  ideals  known  in  pedagogy  and  ethics. 

A  close  study  of  pupil  self-government  reveals  the 
fact  that  many  petty  troubles  inside  and  outside 
the  school-room  may  be  settled  by  the  pupils  them- 


44  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

selves.  By  this  mode  of  school  management  pupils 
become  more  self-respectful^  more  thoughtful,  more 
dignified  and  habitually  more  interested  in  the 
general  welfare  of  the  school.  They  are  taught  to 
become  useful  and  influential  citizens  of  a 
school  community  and  thereby  prepared 
to  become  better  citizens  of  a  state  or  nation.  By 
means  of  the  elective  franchise  pupils  soon  learn 
to  read  character  and  to  understand  the  importance 
of  electing  able  and  trustworthy  officials.  By 
studying  the  nature  of  community  life  the  pupil 
sees  clearly  that  it  is  his  duty  according  to  the 
common  law,  the  statute  law  and  the  moral  law  to 
testify  when  called  upon  and  to  be  actively  engaged 
in  securing  the  best  government  possible. 

The  final  purpose  of  school  government  is  to 
train  pupils  in  the  habit  of  self-government,  self- 
control  and  self-direction.  Conduct  and  order  in 
school  are  secured  through  the  teaching  process. 
Teach  to  govern  rather  than  govern  to  teach.  The 
only  government  worth  any  thing  in  school  is  that 
obtained  through  interest  and  delight  in  the  subject 
studied.  Discipline  through  external  means,  by 
the  authority  of  the  teacher,  by  rules 
adopted  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  or  by 
the  State  itself  is  not  satisfactory  unless  it  leads  the 
pupil  finally  to  control  himself.  The  external  means 
to  secure  this  inner  condition  are  a  thorough  and 
systematic  knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught, 
artistic  skill  in  teaching  and  managing  a  class,  love 
for  the   child   and   love   for  the   profession   and   a 


THE  PUPIL  45 

determination  to  succeed  by  moral  suasion  rather 
than  by  brute  force. 

Pupil  self-government  is  the  ideal  to  be  aimed  at 
in  all  school  management.  However,  special  pupil 
organization  seems  to  be  '' useless  experience  and 
expensive  machinery. '^  The  School  City,  Demo- 
cratic government  as  worked  out  in  the  Chicago 
schools,  and  the  George  Junior  League  of  New  York 
are  examples  of  modern  ideas  in  school  government. 

Universal  Synthesis. — In  an  ideal  school  there 
is  a  universal  synthesis  between  teacher  and  pupil 
and  between  the  various  forces  and  factors  of  the 
school.  It  is  the  function  of  the  school  to  cause  the 
pupil  to  realize  the  spiritual  principle  which  exists 
in  his  own  nature  and  which  is  the  ultimate  reality 
of  all  things  to  be  studied.  The  universal  is  the 
unifying  force  of  the  school  and  binds  all 
parts  into  an  organic  whole.    In  studying        Unifying 

.  r        1  1         1        1  Force 

the  creative  process  or  the  school  the 
student  should  '^find  the  unity  of  law  under  the 
difference  of  facts,  and  the  unity  of  a  higher  principle 
under  the  difference  of  laws.^'  This  insight  into 
the  inner  reality  of  the  school  reveals  a  necessary 
spiritual  interrelation  between  pupil,  teacher  and 
subject-matter.  To  grasp  a  knowledge  of  this 
complete  synthesis  of  the  school  leads  the  individual 
gradually  into  a  unity  of  the  world  other  than  him- 
self and  the  school.  This  fundamental  principle 
which  organizes  the  school  and  which  is  one  with 
the  eternal  reason  of  the  world  is  finally  transmuted 
into  mind  terms  by  the  pedagogical  student. 


46  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  pupil  does  not  lose  his  identity  in  the  school 

organism,  is  not  wholly  absorbed  by  the  superior 

thought  of  the  teacher,  but  should  be  the  initiative 

force  in  the  educational  process.     Modern 

Initiation  of    pedagogy  puts  emphasis  upon  the  initia- 

The  Pupil  ,  r        ^  •!      •  1  ♦         J  •  TT 

tion  of  the  pupil  in  the  recitation.  He 
studies,  thinks,  originates,  plans  and  in  some  schools 
formulates  the  course  of  study  through  his  own 
process  of  thought.  The  class  is  formed  in  a  social 
group  and  the  recitation  is  begun  by  the  pupil 
making  a  formal  statement  of  some  fact.  This 
statement  may  be  questioned,  denied  or  approved 
by  a  further  discussion  of  the  subject.  This  fact  or 
principle  is  further  elaborated  by  some  one,  and 
the  entire  recitation  is  based  upon  the  mental 
movement  of  the  pupil  guided  and  directed  by  the 
teacher.  Notwithstanding,  the  pupils  may  have 
full  control  of  the  recitation,  there  is  a  complete 
synthesis  of  mind,  heart  and  soul  of  the  pupils  and 
the  teacher  becomes  the  final  authority  and  source 
of  knowledge  on  all  subjects.  The  pupil  takes  the 
initiative  in  government,  in  instruction,  on  the 
playground,  in  literary  societies,  and  is  constantly 
trained  in  those  problems  requiring  original  thought. 
In  the  trichotomy  creating  the  school,  the  spiritual 
synthesizes,  the  teacher  analyzes  and  the  pupil 
through  his  own  creative  energy  makes  the  organism 
complete. 

Freedom  Realized. — The  pupil  is  the  focal  centre 
of  the  school  from  the  view-point  of  both  instruc- 
tion and  government.    He   is  seeking   freedom   in 


THE  PUPIL  47 

knowledge  and  freedom  in  control.  His  actions 
are  free  when  control  arises  from  within,  and  his 
thoughts  are  free  when  he  finds  behind  all  existence, 
material  and  institutional,  a  self-activity,  a  soul 
akin  to  his  own.  The  knowledge  process  is  complete 
when  the  pupil  finds  himself  in  everything,  in  the 
school,  in  literature,  in  science,  in  art,  in  history, 
and  in  all  studies.  The  managing  process  is  com- 
plete when  the  caprice  of  the  pupil  is  changed  to 
harmonize  with  the  rational  order  of  the  school. 
Law  and  reason  are  characteristics  of  both  the 
pupil  and  the  school,  and  when  the  pupil  conforms 
to  the  divine  order  of  the  school  he  realizes  his 
true  worth  and  destiny.  The  law  and  order  of  the 
school  harmonize  with  the  rational  order  of  the 
universe.  The  pupil  must  lose  his  life  in  this  ration- 
ality in  order  to  find  his  life  truly  realized.  The 
school  is  the  rational  nature  of  the  pupil  ^^writ 
large '^  to  which  he  must  respond  in  all  his  acts  and 
forms  of  conduct.     The  ultimate  ideal  in  g^if_ 

the  school  process  is  the  self-realization  of  Realization 
the  individual  pupil.  This  put  in  other  terms,  is 
rational  freedom  which  elevates  the  pupil  into  the 
highest  plane  of  life  possible.  The  law  of  the  school 
now  becomes  the  law  of  the  pupil  in  and  through 
the  law  of  the  world.  The  creative  process  of  the 
school  becomes  the  life  process  of  the  pupil  in  and 
through  cosmic  processes  which  are  the  manifesta- 
tion of  reason  itself.  This  universal  principle  of 
reason  is  the  creative  and  constructive  force  of  the 
school  and  is  the  deepest  principle  found  in  human 


48  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

nature.  Since  both  the  school  and  the  pupil  are 
manifestations  of  this  principle  of  reason,  the 
supreme  element  in  both  is  not  mechanical  and 
material,  but  rational  and  spiritual.  The  pupil 
becomes  free,  has  realized  his  true  nature  when 
conduct  and  control  spring  up  in  the  life  of  the  pupil 
spontaneously  without  the  aid  of  an  external 
organization.  The  pupil  obeys  the  inherent  law  of 
his  own  nature,  and  his  actions  in  school  are  regu- 
lated by  this  divine  principle.  The  pupil  realizes 
his  freedom,  attains  his  ultimate  good  and  highest 
state  of  pupilage  when  his  life  is  made  to  throb 
with  the  life  of  the  school  in  and  through  the  life 
of  the  world  other  than  himself. 


THE  SCHOOL  PROCESS 

THE    INSTRUCTIVE    PROCESS 

IV. 

•  THE    ORGA^NIZATION 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  subjective  school  is 
created  by  an  organic  unity  of  teacher  and  pupil 
through  the  thought  of  the  world.  Corresponding 
to  this  ideal  school,  the  objective  school  must  now 
be  organized  as  a  means  to  the  realization  of  the 
school  idea.  The  creative  principle  in  the  subjective 
process  now  externalizes  itself  in  the  objective 
organization. 

To  organize  a  school  is  to  secure  a  definite  rela- 
tionship between  teacher  and  pupil,  to  form  classes, 
establish  grades,  and  to  program  the  whole  move- 
ment. Pupils  must  be  carefully  seated,  .  . 
skillfully  moved,  and  artistically  ques- 
tioned. Books  and  apparatus  should  be  used  at 
the  proper  time  and  in  the  proper  manner.  The 
external  relationship  of  teacher  and  pupil  should 
harmonize  with  the  internal  activity  of  the  ideal 
school. 

The   Class. — Pupils    having    the    same    advance- 
ment and  reciting  at  the  same  time  and  place  form 
a  class.     Pupils  forming  classes  must  be 
in  unity  with  the  subject-matter,  in  unity 
with  the  teacher,   and    in   cooperative   unity  with 
each  other.     The  class  is  an  organism  within  an 

4  49 


60  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

organism;  a  function  within  a  function.  Classifi- 
cation does  not  depend  upon  age,  nor  primarily 
upon  the  physical  condition  of  the  child  but  wholly 
upon  intellectual  capacity.  Pupils  who  can  think 
the  same  subject-matter  in  unison  with  the  teacher 
constitute  a  class.  To  teach  the  class  is  to  teach 
the  social  mind  organized  out  of  the  individuals. 
The  social  consciousness  of  the  class  is  the  individual 
mind  of  all  pupils  centered  upon  one  thought.  The 
teacher's  mind  must  harmonize  with  the  social  mind 
and  at  the  same  time  be  in  active  unity  with  the 
thought  of  the  lesson.  Class  instruction  is  much 
Social  better    than    individual    instruction;     it 

^"'^  inspires   the    pupils   to   greater   activity; 

it  creates  a  spirit  of  emulation  among  the  pupils 
and  produces  a  higher  form  of  mental  activity  in 
the  pupils.  While  no  two  pupils  may  have  the 
same  degree  of  progress,  all  should  have  approxi- 
mately the  same  scholarship  to  be  in  the  same  class. 
To  classify  pupils  properly  it  is  necessary  to  make 
frequent  promotions  based  upon  accurate  scholar- 
ship. Pupils  are  frequently  well  classified  in  arith- 
metic and  at  the  same  time  are  not  well  classified 
in  reading.  The  classification  may  be  good  in  gram- 
mar and  poor  in  history,  but  real  classification  means 
a  general  average  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  in  all 
the  subjects.  Good  classification  naturally  leads  to 
good  gradation.  Good  gradation  is  in  and  through 
good  classification. 

Dr.  Wm.  T.  Harris  writes: 


THE  ORGANIZATION  51 

"That  a  properly  conducted  class  recitation  is  of  far  greater 
value  than  individual  instruction  is  obvious  from  the  consideration 
that  the  contents  of  the  lesson  are  stated  over  and 
over  by  different  pupils  of  the  class,  criticised  and  .  ^^^^^ 

discussed,  illustrated  from  the  experience  of  different 
pupils,  and  the  pupil  has  the  advantage  of  seeing  how  his  fellows 
encounter  and  surmount  such  difficulties  as  he  himself  meets." 

The  Grade. — The  grade  is  an  organic  part  of 
the  course  of  study  and  is  based  upon  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  Pupils 
constituting  a  grade  move  through  school  Hfe  at  the 
same  time.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  grade 
pupils  in  all  subjects  accurately  on  account  of  the 
varied  ability  in  the  different  branches.  The  grade 
may  be  ideal  in  reading  but  imperfect  in  arithmetic. 
In  order  to  preserve  a  well  graded  school,  it  is 
necessary  to  constantly  adjust  the  pupils  to  new 
grades  to  correspond  to  their  advancement. 

Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  says: 

"As  a  school  is  truly  classified  when  the  members  of  a  class  can 
join  with  the  greatest  profit  in  the  same  act  of  instruction,  so  a 
school  is  truly  graded  when  each  pupil  in  his  forward  movement 
follows  the  continuity  of  ideas  determined  by  the  natural  growth 
of  his  mind. " 

To  grade  a  school  requires  a  prearranged  course 
of  study  based  upon  the  law  of  child  growth  and 
development.  In  attempting  to  work  out  a  graded 
system  it  may  be  necessary  at  first  ^Ho  cross  grade. '^ 
Perhaps  it  may  be  necessary  for  three  pupils  of  the 
fourth  grade  to  recite  arithmetic  in  the  third  grade. 
This  pseudo-gradation  will  gradually  develop  itself 


52  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

into    a  clear-cut  distinction  and  arrange- 

Gradation  r>*    i         i  • 

ment  of  perfect  grades.  School  organi- 
zation and  gradation  must  always  respond  to  the 
inner  subjective  school.  A  grade  must  never  be 
fixed  and  mechanical  but  flexible  and  adjustable  to 
the  life  of  the  school.  A  school  is  a  living  and 
growing  organism  and  must  gradually  throw  off  the 
outer  shell  to  give  vent  to  inner  growth.  Perfect 
gradation,  promotion  and  demotion  should  be  based 
upon  the  actual  work  done  in  the  daily  recitations 
rather  than  upon  examinations.  Written  tests  may 
constitute  a  part  of  the  daily  work  but  formal 
examinations  should  not  be  made  the  entire  basis 
for  promotion  and  gradation.  *^The  Lock-Step'* 
problem  in  education  may  be  solved  by  adjusting 
monthly  the  outer  mechanical  phase  of  the  school 
to  the  inner  spiritual  movement.  The  outer  form 
must  grow  and  change  itself  to  harmonize  with 
the  inner  throbbing  organism.  The  ideal  school 
is  struggling  with  the  real,  the  individual  with  the 
universal,  the  what  is,  with  the  what  ought  to  be. 
Again  we  find  the  heart  of  the  school  to  be  a  polarity 
between  two  opposing  forces. 

The  Program. — No  school  can  be  taught  suc- 
cessfully without  a  definite  program  of  daily  reci- 
tation and  study  placed  in  such  a  position  that 
both  teacher  and  pupils  may  see  at  a  glance  the 
movement  of  the  school.  This  program  should  be 
flexible  but  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  the  basis 
of  all  school  work  and  be  in  harmony  with  the 
course  of  study.     It  is  just  as  necessary  to  run  a 


THE  ORGANIZATION  53 

school  by  a  program  as  it  is  to  run  a  railroad  train  by 
a  time-table.  There  will  be  just  as  many  collisions 
in  the  school  as  on  the  railroad;  as  many  disastrous 
wrecks  of  the  mind  in  the  former,  as  wrecks  of  body 
on  the  latter.  By  means  of  a  daily  program  of  study 
and  recitation  pupils  are  kept  in  organic  unity 
with  the  teacher  not  only  in  the  recitation  but 
also  in  the  study  hour  because  they  are  tracing 
out  the  thoughts  planned  by  the  teacher  in  the 
lesson  assigned. 

School  organization  presupposes  a  definite  pro- 
gram of  study  and  recitation  thought  out  and  lived 
through  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  before  the  first 
day  of  school.     The  teacher  must  think  ^^^^ 

and  live  the  first  day  in  idea  before  he  First  Day 
experiences  it  as  an  objective  reality.  Such  a 
definite  method  of  procedure  planned  before  the 
organization  of  the  school  gives  the  teacher  con- 
fidence, ease,  and  equipoise,  and  enables  him  to 
move  quickly  and  accurately  in  unifying  the  various 
forces  and  factors  of  the  school. 

How  to  Organize. — In  order  to  organize  a  school 
it  is  essential  to  have  a  definite  knowledge  of  the 
classes  and  grades,  of  the  size  and  condition  of  the 
school-room,  and  to  understand  thoroughly  the 
course  of  study  to  be  taught.  Having  these  pre- 
requisites in  mind,  a  school  should  be  so  organized 
that  in  a  few  moments  each  pupil  will  be  actively 
engaged  in  studying  and  reciting.  After  a  few 
preliminary  remarks  (the  shorter,  the  better,)  the 
teacher  announces  that  each  pupil  may  look  over 


54  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  first  reading  lesson.     While  studying 

Organization  i. 

these  lessons,  the  teacher  hears  a  prelim- 
inary lesson  in  arithmetic  and  at  the  same  time 
assigns  a  lesson  in  grammar.  He  then  hears  each 
lesson  in  reading  and  assigns  the  next  lesson  for 
study,  and  in  three  minutes  after  the  school  is 
called  to  order  each  pupil  is  studying  and  reciting 
and  the  school  organism  is  performing  its  function 
as  accurately  and  harmoniously  as  on  the  middle 
or  last  day  of  school. 

Prior  to  this  actual  organization  a  school  must 
be  secured,  a  contract  made,  the  teacher  located, 
and  a  full  knowledge  of  the  what,  the  when,  and  the 
how  of  the  first  day  of  school.  The  opening  exercise 
is  the  first  act  in  the  preliminary  organization 
because  it  focalizes  and  unifies  all  minds  to  a  com- 
mon school  thought.  These  exercises  should  be 
scriptural,  literary,  scientific,  historical,  biographical 
and  mythological. 

The  Inner  vs.  the  Outer. — As  all  content  has  its 
form  and  all  noumena,  their  phenomena,  so  all 
the  elements  of  the  inner  subjective  school  have 
their  corresponding  external  objective  phases  known 
as  the  machinery  of  the  school.  There  is  a  military 
side  of  the  school;  calling  classes,  arranging  appa- 
schooi  ratus,    receiving    and    dismissing    pupils, 

Machinery  j^^^  i\^[q  material  phase  of  the  school 
process  is  but  a  means  of  the  deeper  movement. 
When  too  much  attention  is  given  to  the  mechanism 
of  the  school  the  higher  spiritual  life  is  destroyed. 
The   highest    ideal   is   not    military   precision,    but 


THE  ORGANIZATION  55 

thought  precision;  not  the  manipulation  of  school 
means  but  the  manipulation  of  mind  in  the  total 
educational  process. 

The  fundamental  principle  underlying  the  com- 
plex activities  of  the  school  is  the  inner  law  of  the 
school  organism.  '^The  law  of  an  organism  is  its 
own  inherent  energy  moving  forward  by  variety 
of  functions  in  unity,  to  realize  the  end  Law  of  an 
which  called  forth  the  organism.''  Within  Organism 
the  school  there  is  an  inherent  force  (mind  in  unity 
with  mind)  which  causes  it  to  accomplish  the  pur- 
pose of  its  existence.  Also  within  the  plant,  animal, 
state,  church  and  school  there  is  a  pent-up  force 
(energy  struggling  with  energy)  which  seeks  its 
realization  through  a  tension  of  the  ideal  and  real, 
a  polarity  between  the  actual  and  the  potential 
and  a  warfare  between  appearance  and  ultimate 
reality. 

The  external  school  realizes  its  purpose  by  chang- 
ing the  pupil  from  his  original  nature  to  his  ideal 
nature. 

"Nature  means  that  highest  possible  reality  which  a  living 
thing,  through  a  series  of  voluntary  acts,  originating  within  or 
without  it,  may  be  made  to  attain." 

Thomas  Davidson. 

The  objective  school  must  create  within  the 
pupil  a  desire  to  study,  to  grow,  to  excel,  to  do  good 
in  the  world  and  give  him  a  thirst  for  knowledge 
and  a  craving  for  higher  life.  If  the  pupil  does  not 
respond  to  the  throbbing  life  of  the  school  some 
incentive  must  be  used  as  a  means  of  stimulating 


66  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

him  to  greater  activity.  Artificial  incen- 
tives, as  prizes,  books,  medals,  tickets  and 
percentages  do  not  reach  the  inner  life  of  the 
child,  and  hence  should  be  rarely  used  to  induce 
pupils  to  study.  They  are  not  in  harmony  with 
the  law  of  self-activity  which  teaches  that  nothing 
artificial  should  ever  intervene  between  the  think- 
ing mind  and  the  world  to  be  taught. 

Natural  incentives  are  desires  which  harmonize 
with  the  law  of  effort  and  the  law  of  self-activity. 
Dr.  E.  E.  White  enumerates  them  as  follows: 

1.  Desire  for  good  standing.  6.  Desire  for  future  good. 

2.  Desire  for  approbation.  7.  Sense  of  honor. 

3.  Desire  for  knowledge.  8.  Sense  of  right. 

4.  Desire  for  efficiency.  9.  Sense  of  duty. 

5.  Desire  for  self-control. 

The  school  causes  the  pupil  to  externalize  himself 
in  his  ideals;  his  individuality  is  changed  into 
essentiality;  the  individual  is  made  to  accord  with 
the  universal.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  school  to 
trace  in  nature,  in  the  human  mind,  in  social  insti- 
immanent  tutions,  iu  history,  in  philosophy,  and  in 
Reason  rcHgion,   the   immanent   reason   which   is 

the  origin  of  all  things.  This  reason  is  not  an 
ethereal  something  seen  on  the  border  land  of  dreams, 
but  is  the  indweUing  and  informing  hfe  of  the 
universe  itself.  The  school  also  aims  to  discover 
this  underlying  unity  of  nature  and  mind^  and  to 
indicate  how  reason  reveals  itself  as  the  indwelling 
life  of  science,  art,  morality  and  religion.  The  final 
purpose  of  both  the  external  and  the  internal  process 


THE  ORGANIZATION  57 

is  to  teach  the  doctrine  that  every  individual  thing  in 
the  world  arises  out  of  some  universal  law  of  reason. 

"This  universal  principle  of  reason  is  the  creative  and  constnic-^ 
tive  force  of  the  universe.  It  is  seen  in  the  architectonic  principle, 
which  is  the  soul  of  the  plant,  in  the  creative  and  sustaining  power 
in  the  animal  and  in  man,  in  the  formation  of  character,  in  the 
building  of  institutions,  in  the  development  of  church  and  state, 
and  of  the  arts  and  sciences." 

J.   C.   HiBBEN. 

As  all  cosmic  processes  are  the  manifestation  of 
reason,  so  are  all  school  processes  a  form  of  some 
mental  activity  in  interpreting  this  reason.  The 
deepest    principle    in    the    world    is    the  cosmic 

organizing  energy  of  the  school.  As  all  Processes 
forms  of  nature  were  created  by  this  eternal  princi- 
ple of  reason,  so  are  the  outer  forms  of  the  school 
derived  from  this  immanent  principle.  As  the  laws 
of  the  physical  universe  are  ideal,  so  are  the  laws 
of  the  school  spiritual.  Neither  the  school  nor  the 
world  is  material  and  mechanical,  but  both  are 
rational  and  spiritual.  The  school  and  the  universe 
are  processes  in  the  development  of  reason.  It  has 
been  said  that  ''all  history  is  an  evolution  of  this 
reason  in  the  progressive  unfolding  of  its  inner 
activity.''  We  have  said  that  science  is  a  process  of 
tracing  the  universal  thought  of  the  world.  Art 
is  a  manifestation  of  the  spiritual  in  the  sensible. 
Philosophy  is  a  thought  interpretation  of  the 
universe. 

The  educational  process  changes  the  individual 
into  the  form  of  universality.    This  is  a  form  of  the 


58  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

spirit^s  growth  toward  self-consciousness  and  has 
been  called  spiritual  freedom.  Education  is  a 
process  of  changing  the  potentiality  of  the  child 
into  actuality;  it  is  a  transition  of  the 
individual  pupil  into  a  world-compre- 
hending process.  Education  is  essentially  a  phil- 
osophical process;  it  is  a  study  of  thought  as  mani- 
fested in  mind  activity  and  revealed  in  the  structure 
of  the  universe.     Education  teaches  us  that,— 

"Amidst  all  the  mysteries  by  which  we  are  surrounded,  nothing 
is  more  certain  than  that  we  are  ever  in  the  presence  of  an  Infinite 
and  Eternal  Energy  from  which  all  things  proceed." 

Herbeet  Spencer. 


V. 

THE    RECITATION 

The  recitation  is  that  part  of  the  instructive 
process  of  the  school  in  which  the  pupil  thinks  over 
what  he  has  learned,  and  communicates  his  thoughts 
to  the  teacher  and  the  class.  The  recitation  is  a 
mental  movement  through  the  thought  of  the  les- 
son and  an  accurate  expression  of  its  meaning  and 
significance.  Pupils  should  not  be  re- 
quired to  repeat  or  recite  ''words,  words, 
words."  The  thought  of  the  lesson  should  be 
expressed  beautifully  in  the  language  of  the  pupil. 
Reciting  requires  thinking;  thinking  leads  to  expres- 
sion; and  expression  fixes  impression  and  reflection. 

The  Purpose. — The  purposes  of  a  recitation  are: 
To  excite  interest  in  study,  to  train  in  correct 
methods  of  study,  to  ascertain  how  much  the  pupil 
has  studied,  to  give  explanations,  to  approve,  to 
criticise,  to  stimulate,  and  to  inspire  to  higher  life. 
It  should  be  the  aim  of  every  recitation  to  see  that 
pupils  understand  the  lesson  studied,  to  deepen  this 
knowledge  so  that  'Hhe  mind  will  act  Aim  in  the 
again  as  it  has  once  acted."  Each  recita-  i^ecitation 
tion  should  review  the  previous  lesson,  discuss  the 
present  one  and  make  a  preliminary  study  of  the 
next  one.  In  reciting  pupils  are  drilled  in  thinking, 
studying,  learning  and  power  of  expression.  Accord- 
ing to  J.  G.  Fitch  the  objects  of  a  recitation  are: 

59 


60  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

1.  To  find  what  the  pupil  knows,  to  prepare  him  for  instruction. 

2.  To  discover  his  misconceptions  and  difficulties. 

3.  To  secure  the  activity  of  his  mind,  and  his  full  cooperation. 

4.  To  test  the  result  and  outcome  of  what  you  have  taught. 

5.  To  determine  the  pupil's  readiness  or  ability  to  go  on. 

6.  To  test  yourself  as  his  teacher, 

A  Good  Recitation. — The  qualities  of  a  good 
recitation  are  a  lively  attention,  a  mastery  of  the 
lesson,  promptness,  dispatch,  order,  enthusiasm, 
and  a  happy  disposition  on  the  part  of  both  teacher 
A  Perfect  ^^^  pupil.  A  pcrfcct  rccitation  is  one  in 
Recitation  which  pupils  rccitc  accurately,  freely,  and 
joyfully.  It  is  one  in  which  the  teacher  talks  less, 
but  causes  the  pupil  to  think  and  to  express  himself 
more.  The  true  teacher  has  such  consummate 
skill  and  insight  into  the  nature  of  mind  and  subject- 
matter  as  to  hold  the  school  organism  intact  and 
cause  each  unit  to  function  properly.  In  a  good 
recitation  both  teacher  and  pupil  must  thoroughly 
understand  the  lesson,  the  mechanical  friction  must 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  spiritual  unity  of 
teacher,  pupil  and  thought  must  be  made  the  crown- 
ing purpose.  A  lesson  is  successful  when  order  is 
maintained,  when  interest  is  secured  in  the  subject, 
when  proper  means  are  used  to  attain  certain  mental 
steps  and  to  inspire  the  pupils  to  hard  work. 

To  conduct  a  good  recitation,  there  must  be 
harmony  and  good  will  between  teacher  and  pupil, 
a  deep  interest  in  the  subject  studied,  an  exhaustive 
and  spirited  discussion  of  the  lesson,  and  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  a  profound  grasp  of  the  funda- 


THE  RECITATION  61 

mental  law  of  teaching.  The  outer  mechanism  of 
the  recitation  must  breathe  the  spirit  of  the  inner 
subjective  nature  of  the  school.  The  subjective 
school  externalizes  itself  in  the  recitation.  All  the 
forces  operating  in  the  school  are  focalized  p^^ogg 

and  centralized  in  the  recitation  of  a  centralized 
lesson.  This  is  the  central  activity  and  pulse-beat 
of  the  school  and  success  in  the  recitation  means 
that  the  outer  school  has  realized  its  final  purpose. 
The  ultimate  purpose  of  all  educational  processes 
is  objectified  and  attained  in  the  recitation.  The 
school  fund,  the  school-house,  the  apparatus,  the 
academic  and  professional  training  of  the  teacher 
are  all  put  in  the  recitation.  It  becomes  successful 
and  artistic  when  there  is  accuracy  and  beauty  of 
presentation,  and  when  all  mechanical  means  are 
subordinated  to  spiritual  activity. 

The  length  of  a  recitation  should  depend  upon 
the  age  of  the  pupil,  the  nature  of  the  subject  studied, 
and  the  surrounding  conditions.  The  recitation 
period  in  the  primary  grades  should  usually  be 
short.  However,  in  the  school-garden,  in  the  school- 
kitchen,  in  the  laboratory,  and  in  the  study  of 
actual  concrete  nature,  the  period  of  the  recitation 
may  be  lengthened  on  account  of  the  exciting  sur- 
roundings. For  more  advanced  pupils  a  longer 
period  is  possible  and  necessary.  In 
the  higher  subjects  more  time  is  needed  ofthe 

for     the     discussion    of    a    lesson.      The 
pupil's  mind  is  able  to  follow  a  train  of  thought  longer 
and  the  recitation  now  becomes  an  intense  process 


62  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

in  spiritual  development.  Recitations  should  be  so 
coordinated  that  the  interest  gained  in  one  should 
be  carried  over  to  the  next.  Sometimes  in  the 
study  of  a  poem,  a  mathematical  problem,  or  a 
scientific  experiment,  the  lesson  may  continue  a 
week.  In  the  study  of  *'The  Chambered  Nautilus,'' 
in  the  solution  of  the  Pythagorean  theorem,  or  in 
the  physical  demonstration  of  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  by  the  Foucault  Experiment,  the  same  lesson 
may  continue  profitably  for  several  days.  In  general 
the  recitation  should  have  sufficient  length  to  discuss 
thoroughly  all  the  important  thoughts  contained  in 
the  lesson.  The  recitation  period  as  well  as  the 
other  educational  processes,  has  a  tripartite  nature: 
An  introduction,  a  discussion  and  a  conclusion.  The 
introduction  should  not  only  outline  the  next  lesson 
Parts  of  a  briefly,  but  unify  the  present  lesson  with 
Kecitation  ^^iQ  past  ouc.  The  discussiou  should 
proceed  according  to  some  logical  plan  thought 
out.  The  conclusion  sums  up  the  points  in 
the  lesson  and  should  be  full  of  feeling  and 
inspiration. 

Method  in  the  Recitation. — There  are  many  me- 
chanical ways  and  plans  of  conducting  a  recita- 
tion. Pupils  may  recite  in  concert  in  reading,  in 
number  work,  in  reviewing  historical  facts,  in  stating 

principles  in  grammar,  arithmetic,  geog- 
socratic         raphy    and    physiology    and    in    learning 

definitions  and  quotations  verbatim.  This 
is  purely  a  mechanical  mode  of  procedure  and 
should  be  used  only  occasionally  and   for   variety 


THE  RECITATION  63 

sake.  The  Socratic  or  catechetic  method  is  valu- 
able in  thoroughly  testing  the  pupil,  in  logically 
unfolding  the  subject  and  in  introducing  new  and 
related  matter.     E.  E.  White  says: 

'"       "There  is  no  test  of  knowledge  as  searching  and  thorough  as 
a  skillful  question. "  ,. 

Skill  in  asking  questions  is  attained  by  a  true 
insight  into  the  essential  movement  of  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  in  learning  a  subject.  While  books  on 
questioning  are  of  little  value  a  few  general  direc- 
tions may  be  helpful  to  the  teacher.  Questions 
should  be  clear,  concise,  definite,  logical,  to  the 
point,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  learner,  and 
never  ambiguous.  Questions  should  be  avoided 
that  give  a  choice  between  two  answers  and  that 
exercise  the  memory  only.  Direct  and  set  questions 
are  of  little  value  in  the  teaching  process.  The 
object  of  the  catechetic  method  is  to  find  out  what 
pupils  know,  to  ascertain  what  they  need  to  know^ 
to  awaken  within  them  a  curiosity  to  know,  to 
arouse  the  mind  to  action,  to  illustrate,  to  explain, 
to  give  knowledge,  to  fix  knowledge  in  the  mind 
and  to  secure  thoroughness.  In  the  Socratic  method 
a  few  cautions  should  be  observed:  Ask  questions 
only  once,  vary  the  questions,  begin  with  easy 
questions,  let  questions  be  connected,  do  not  suggest 
the  answers,  ask  questions  distinctly,  do  not  ridi- 
cule answers,  never  tell  what  the  child  can  tell^ 
question  the  lesson  into  the  mind  and  question  the 
lesson  out  of  the  mind. 


64  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

However,  the  question  method  does  not  drill  the 
pupil  in  the  power  of  thought  and  expression  as  well 
as  the  topic  method.  By  reciting  topically,  the 
Topic  pupil  gains  a  mastery  of  utterance  and 

Method  ^^  ability  in  the  systematic  arrangement 

of  his  thoughts.  It  cultivates  his  expressive  powers, 
gives  him  a  facile  use  of  language  and  initiates  him 
into  the  realm  of  forensics,  debating,  public  speaking 
and  oratory.  The  topic  method  gives  both  the 
teacher  and  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to  introduce 
supplementary  matter  in  the  recitation. 

Pupils  may  be  called  on  to  recite  in  a  consecutive 
or  promiscuous  order.  The  former  has  the  advan- 
tage in  point  of  time  and  the  latter  in  point  of  atten- 
tion. While  the  consecutive  method  is  easier  for 
the  teacher  the  promiscuous  method  keeps  intact 
the  organic  spiritual  nature  of  the  school.  The 
Lecture  Iccture  mcthod  is  perhaps  the  best  for 
Method  advanced  classes  provided  the  pupil  does 

the  lecturing.  He  prepares  a  talk  on  the  eye,  the 
Pilgrims,  the  infinitive,  Evangeline,  Cuba  or  cube 
root  and  discusses  the  subject  for  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes  in  a  masterly  and  inspiring  manner.  It 
develops  the  individual's  self-activity  and  is  a  much 
better  method  of  review  than  the  formal  written 
examination.  In  general  the  oral  method  is  adapted 
to  child  life  and  the  written  method  for  more  ad- 
vanced students.  However,  both  may  be  used 
successfully  throughout  the  entire  school  work. 
The  written  method  gives  the  child  the  mechanics 
of  learning  and  aids  pupils  in  the  higher  grades  in 


THE  RECITATION  65 

studying  and  preparing  a  lesson  in  a  systematic 
manner.  The  skillful  teacher  will  devise  some 
written  work  in  almost  every  recitation.  It  gives 
definiteness  to  preparation  and  assists  the  mind  in 
gaining  and  retaining  knowledge. 

The  concrete  method  with  objects,  diagrams,  the 
numerical  frame,  geometrical  blocks,  the  globe, 
the  eye  or  heart  is  the  form  of  instruction  for  the 
elementary  grades.  The  abstract  method,  using 
rules,  tables,  definitions,  principles  is  adapted  to 
mature  students.  While  the  general  law  of  these 
methods  has  been  stated  so  far  as  the  common 
school  is  concerned,  the  concrete  method 

-  .  ...  — .  ,       CJoncrete  and 

IS  also  used  m  universities.  Botany  is  Abstract 
studied  with  the  plant  in  hand,  geology 
by  observing  and  collecting  specimens  and  chem- 
istry by  using  the  concrete  elements  in  the  labora- 
tory. The  abstract  method  must  be  used  in  the 
lower  grades  in  fixing  certain  principles  and  in 
gradually  leading  the  child  as  his  mind  develops 
from  concrete  reality  into  the  realm  of  abstract 
thought. 

The    synthetic    method    of   going    from    parts    to 
wholes,   of   beginning   the   study   of   geography   at 
home  and  the  study  of  grammar  by  words,  sentences 
and  then  discourse,  is  the  primary  method. 
The  analytic  method  of  proceeding  from  And 

wholes  to  parts,  of  beginning  geography  *  ^ '° 

with  the  globe  and  grammar  with  the  sentence,  is 
the   movement   of   mind   best  suited   to   advanced 
thinking.      However,    the    movement    of    mind    is 
5 


66  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

analytico-synthetical  in  gaining  knowledge.  Accord- 
ing to  the  inner  law  of  the  mind  it  first  seizes  the 
object  indistinctly,  then  analyzes  it  into  its  definite 
elements,  again  fixing  its  attention  upon  the  isolated 
attributes  and  lastly  unifies  and  organizes  these 
elements  into  the  original  whole.  Every  process  of 
analysis  must  be  supplemented  by  a  process  of 
synthesis.  As  the  pupil  analyzes  the  eye  he  synthe- 
sizes the  parts  and  as  he  synthesizes  he  further 
analyzes  until  he  attains  a  definite  and  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  the  attributes  and  parts.  Every 
subject  taught  must  include  both  methods,  because 
these  methods  embrace  the  law  of  knowing,  the  law 
of  thinking  and  the  law  of  learning. 

By  the  inductive  method  ideas  are  studied  before 
words  and  examples  before  rules.  By  the  deductive 
method  the  mind  moves  from  general  truths  to 
particular  facts.    The  analytic  method  is  deductive, 

and  the  synthetic  method  is  inductive.  In 
And  the  inductive  method  the  teacher  begins 

with  the  individual  object  comparing  it 
with  other  individuals,  noting  likenesses  and  differ- 
ences and  gradually  arrives  at  the  development  of 
the  general  notion.  By  observing  a  small  stream  of 
water,  a  creek  and  finally  a  river,  the  general  notion 
of  the  river  is  derived  as ,  an  inductive  process. 
Solving  problems  in  square  or  cube  root  by  the 
blocks,  and  then  formulating  a  rule  is  an  inductive 
process.  The  old  method  of  committing  the  rule 
to  memory  in  arithmetic  and  then  solving  the 
problem  is  the  deductive  process.     The  deductive 


THE  RECITATION  67 

method  is  used  by  studying  the  facts  concerning 
the  human  body  and  then  verifying  them  by  actual 
observation;  by  studying  a  text- book  on  botany 
and  then  examining  specimens  of  plants  to  illus- 
trate principles,  and  by  learning  mathematical 
axioms  and  principles  and  then  applying  them  in 
the  solution  of  problems. 

It  seems  from  this  discussion  that  there  are  many 
methods  of  conducting  a  recitation,  many  move- 
ments of  mind  in  teaching  and  many  different 
processes  of  attacking  subject-matter.  In  the  last 
analysis,    there    is    only    one    method    of  one 

conducting  a  recitation  and  that  is  the  Method 
manner  in  which  the  mind  identifies  itself  with  the 
thought  and  spirit  of  the  world  other  than  itself. 
The  problem  in  the  recitation  is  the  problem  in 
philosophy — translating  the  subjective  into  the 
objective  and  ascertaining  the  objective  to  be  the 
subjective. 

Planning  a  Lesson. — A  thorough  preparation  of 
the  lesson  by  both  teacher  and  pupil,  a  systematic 
plan  of  procedure  and  a  proper  assignment  are 
essential  factors  in  every  recitation.  To  plan  a 
lesson  is  to  know  the  method  in  the  subject  and  the 
method  in  the  learning  mind  and  to  be  able  to 
transmute  the  thoughts  of  the  lesson  into  the 
thinking  mind.  In  planning  a  recitation  ToPian 
the  teacher  works  through  the  lesson,  a  Lesson 
ascertains  the  exact  thought  and  arranges  and 
organizes  it  into  teachable  form.  The  teacher  must 
analyze  the  subject  to  be  taught  into  its  mental 


68  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

processes  and  see  clearly  the  movement  of  the  pupiFs 
mind  in  grasping  it.  He  must  understand  the  law 
of  psychology  on  one  side,  and  the  law  of  subject- 
matter  on  the  other.  The  artistic  teacher  must 
adjust  the  developmental  phases  of  the  subject 
to  corresponding  stages  of  mind  growth  in  the  child. 

In  planning  a  lesson  we  should  proceed  on  the 
assumption  that  education  is  an  organic  process  of 
uniting  two  forces:  Mind  including  its  activities, 
Education  powcrs  and  processes,  and  subject-matter 
Organic  includiug  its  laws,  facts  and  principles. 
The  educational  process  as  realized  in  the  recitation 
transmutes  these  subject  activities  into  correspond- 
ing mind  activities.  The  possibilities  of  mind 
become  realities  through  the  interaction  of  subject 
and  object.  The  recitation  is  that  artistic  process 
of  adjusting  the  growing  mind  to  a  similar  mind 
process  found  in  the  subject  studied.  In  order  to 
illustrate  the  value  and  purpose  of  planning  a  lesson 
the  following  brief  type  plans  are  given. 

In  planning  a  lesson  the  means,  mental  steps, 
and  the  purpose  should  be  noted.  To  teach  the 
child  the  idea,  foot,  the  teacher  uses  the  foot-ruler. 
The  pupil  measures  a  foot  on  the  desk  and  black- 
board, cuts  paper  a  foot  long  and  brings  in  objects 
a  foot  in  length.  To  teach  the  idea,  foot,  pupils 
must  see  the  tangible  thing  and  then  think  foot  in 
the  abstract.  They  should  be  made  to  see  that 
foot  is  not  a  certain  length  of  a  material  thing,  but 
that  it  is  a  certain  portion  of  space  in  one  direction. 
There  are  two  steps  in  thinking  foot:     One  seeing 


THE  RECITATION  69 

a  foot,  and  the  other,  imaging  the  meaning  back 
of  the  material  thing.  The  pupil  must  get  a  clear- 
cut  distinction  between  material  foot  and  to  Think 
ideal  foot,  foot  in  the  mind  and  foot  in  ^"^^ 

reality.  In  fact  foot  is  mental  rather  than  material. 
The  mind  moves  from  the  concrete  ruler  to  the 
abstract  idea  of  foot.  To  think  foot  is  to  unify  the 
real  with  the  ideal.  The  child  cannot  think  material, 
for  meaning  is  universal.  To  think  foot  is  to  under- 
stand that  universal  element  which  constitutes  foot 
wherever  it  may  be  found.  Thinking  is  seeing 
relations  and  is  a  process  of  translating  the  objec- 
tive into  the  mind.  The  vital,  living  unity  is  at 
last  attained,  knowledge  is  obtained  and  spiritual 
freedom  realized.  The  purpose  or  final  aim  in 
teaching  foot  is  to  gain  a  new  idea  which  acts  as  an 
organ  of  knowing  and  which  aids  the  pupil  in 
mastering  other  forms  of  knowledge.  Teaching  the 
idea  of  foot  disciplines  the  mind  in  seeing  and 
thinking,  and  beautifully  illustrates  the  process  of 
the  mind  moving  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 
From  the  material  ruler  the  child  ascertains  the 
meaning  or  significance  which  alone  leads  into  the 
realm  of  knowledge  and  freedom. 

It  requires  a  higher  form  of  mental  activity  to 
think  number  than  to  think  an  object.  Number  is 
not  an  object,  it  is  not  a  mental  picture,  it  is  not  a 
figure,  it  is  not  a  quality  of  an  object,  to  Think 
but  has  been  defined  by  Newton  as  an  Number 
abstract  ratio  of  one  quantity  to  another  of  the 
same  kind.     For  a  pupil  to  be  able  to  think  two- 


70  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

thirds,  the  teacher  uses  such  means  as  crayons, 
balls,  squares,  chairs  and  sticks.  It  requires  a 
higher  activity  of  thought  to  think  two-thirds  than 
to  think  a  foot.  The  mind  first  thinks  the  quality, 
shape  and  form,  and  then  thinks  away  quality  and 
thinks  quantity.  The  category  of  quality  gradu- 
ally emerges  into  the  category  of  quantity.  External 
perception  becomes  internal  perception  and  phe- 
nomenal activity  takes  the  form  of  noumenal 
activity.  To  think  a  fraction  is  a  triple  mental  act. 
The  pupil  first  thinks  two  as  a  relational  activity, 
then  three,  and  lastly  thinks  them  in  relation,  in 
one  thought  process.  It  requires  a  vigorous  mind 
activity  to  think  these  tripartite  elements,  quality, 
quantity  and  relation  in  a  single  process.  When 
the  child  is  first  introduced  into  the  study  of  frac- 
tions he  frequently  fails  in  understanding  the  sub- 
ject on  account  of  a  lack  of  mental  power.  The 
aim  of  this  lesson  is  to  train  the  mind  in  abstract 
processes  of  thought.  The  number  idea  leads  the 
pupil  into  a  form  of  mental  activity  necessary  to 
gain  any  knowledge  whatever.  It  trains  the  mind 
in  that  universal  and  fundamental  form  of  activity 
which  is  found  in  the  world  other  than  itself.  He 
attains  aesthetic  freedom  by  finding  himself  reflected 
in  the  foot  and  in  the  two-thirds  which  are  types  of 
his  own  life.  The  pupil  delights  in  learning  foot  and 
two-thirds,  because  in  these  objects  he  finds  his  true 
ideal  self  mirrored.  To  awaken  the  pupiPs  sesthetic 
emotion  gives  him  a  tendency  to  higher  life  and 
an  inspiration  to  seek  truth,  beauty  and  goodness. 


THE  RECITATION  71 

"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. " 

In  planning  to  teach  this  quatrain,  the  pupil  must 
first  study  the  life  of  Thomas  Gray  and  secondly  get 
a  clear  idea  of  an  elegy.  The  mental  steps  in  teach- 
ing and  thinking  this  stanza  are  perceiv-  to  Think 
ing  the  words,  imaging  the  meaning,  and  a  Poem 
identifying  the  self  with  the  thought  and  feeling 
of  the  stanza.  In  studying  any  literary  selection 
the  mind  is  first  directed  toward  the  sign  or  word 
and  then  secondly  toward  the  signification  or 
meaning.  The  pupil  should  be  taught  the  meaning 
of  curfew,  cover  the  fire;  knell,  the  sound  of  a  funeral 
bell;  lea,  a  meadow  or  field;  and  parting,  used  by 
aphaeresis,  for  departing.  He  should  be  required 
to  think  the  poetic  meaning  of  winds,  to  note  the 
poetic  effect  of  plods  and  the  alliterative  signifi- 
cance of  '^ weary  way^'  and  ^^ plowman  plods.'' 
The  next  step  is  to  think  the  stanza  into  poetic 
feet  and  to  understand  iambic  pentameter.  The 
pupil  lastly  identifies  himself  with  the  thought, 
rhyme  and  rhythm  of  the  quatrain  and  translates 
it  into  his  own  life.  In  the  musical  flow  he  realizes 
the  meaning  of  the  syncope  and  the  aphaeresis.  The 
final  act  in  teaching  and  thinking  the  stanza  is  to 
picture  the  imagery,  not  only  mentally,  but  in  colors 
on  paper.  The  spirit  of  the  stanza  is  externalized, 
mind  identifies  its  otherness  and  hence  spiritual 
freedom  is  realized. 


72  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

A  Work  of  Art. — A  recitation  should  be  so 
planned,  adapted,  arranged  and  so  enriched  as  to 
form  a  work  of  art.  The  ordinary  teacher  is  usually 
satisfied  with  accuracy  in  the  recitation,  but  the 
ideal  teacher  would  add  beauty.     Browning  says: 

"If  you  get  simple  beauty  and  naught  else,  you  get  about  the 
best  thing  God  invents. " 

To  become  a  work  of  art,  the  recitation  should 
express  the  free  embodiment  of  thought  in  appro- 
priate form.  There  must  be  a  nice  adjustment  of 
Adjustment  thought  to  thc  Icssou  rccitcd.  The  reci- 
And  Balance  j^^tion  must  bc  couductcd  lu  Siii  Orderly 
plan  and  in  written  lessons.  ^^  Every  sheet  produced 
by  pupils  in  school  should  be  balanced  in  effect, 
and  thus  reflect  some  echo  of  the  harmony  of  a 
work  of  art.  Let  a  child  once  grasp  the  principle 
of  balance  and  his  every  paper  takes  on  a  new  and 
fascinating  interest;  he  himself  is  no  longer  an 
artisan;   he  is  exalted  into  the  realm  of  the  artist.'' 

A  recitation  is  considered  beautiful  when  the 
spiritual  activity  is  not  retarded  by  the  mechanical 
means  used.  The  external  factors,  the  apparatus, 
the  seating  of  pupils,  the  condition  of  the  school- 
room and  the  manner  of  reciting  must  all  respond 
to  the  inner  life  and  energy  of  the  school.  For  a 
Recitation  rccitatiou  to  be  beautiful  this  energy  must 
Beautiful  j^^^  |^^  jj^  bondagc  to  the  outer  form  or 
mechanical  phase,  but  must  move  freely.  A  recita- 
tion becomes  a  work  of  art  when  there  is  free  and 
easy   movement   of   thought   and   when   the   outer 


THE  RECITATION  73 

form  assists  the  inner  spirit  of  the  school  in  realizing 
its  true  purpose. 

In  the  recitation  the  freedom  of  the  spirit  of  the 
child  is  conditioned  in  and  through  some  external 
stimulus.  It  is  a  work  of  art  because  it  why  a  Work 
assists  in  spiritual  freedom.  The  activity  oi  An? 
of  spirit  is  not  free  until  it  springs  up  unaided  by 
the  factors  of  the  recitation.  The  recitation  may 
be  compared  to  the  Greek  Spirit  because  it  is  a 
mind  process  aided  by  the  natural.  The  mind  of 
the  pupil  during  the  stage  of  the  development  of 
the  school  recitation  needs  the  excitement  produced 
by  the  various  external  forces  and  factors  embodied 
in  the  recitation.  The  student  is  not  able  to  carry 
on  an  extended  train  of  thought  without  the  aid  of 
the  recitation  stimulus.  It  is  a  work  of  art  because 
it  deals  with  thoughts,  ideas  and  conceptions  pro- 
jected in  tangible  form.  It  deals  with  spiritual 
processes  and  aims  at  spiritual  freedom.  In  the 
final  analysis  of  the  educational  process,  the  teacher 
becomes  artist,  the  recitation  is  transformed  into 
a  work  of  art,  the  pupil  is  metamorphosed  in  and 
through  the  spiritual  energy  of  the  recitation.  The 
teacher  is  the  Raphael,  the  recitation  is  the  '^  Trans- 
figuration" and  the  pupil  is  the  being  transfigured. 


VI. 

THE    CURRICULUM. 

The  movement  of  the  mind,  in  the  recitation 
naturally  leads  to  that  larger  movement  of  thought 
through  the  entire  life  of  the  school  known  as  the 
curriculum.  The  curriculum  or  course  of  study 
indicates  the  stages  of  mind  growth  corresponding 
to  steps  in  the  development  of  subject-matter.  The 
curriculum-maker  must  take  into  consideration  the 
evolution  of  mind  and  the  evolution  of  subjects. 

The  essential  question  is  to  adjust  the  various 
phases  of  subject-matter  to  such  corresponding 
phases  of  mind  activity  that  will  neatly  fit  into  the 
thought  embodied  in  the  subject.  The  logical 
order  of  subjects  must  again  correspond  to  the 
psychological  order  of  the  growing  mind. 

Primary  and  Advanced.  —  In  primary  grades 
the  content  of  subjects  should  be  shallow,  but  the 
extent,  great.  The  lesson  should  be  made  concrete, 
observational  and  experimental.  The  child  is 
introduced  into  the  world  of  spirit  through  the 
concrete  world  of  reality.  In  advanced  work  the 
extent  should  be  narrow  and  the  content  deep. 
University  students  pursue  few  subjects  but  make 
a  more  profound  study  of  their  specialties.  Accord- 
ing to  Tompkins  the  common  school  deals  with 
perceptions  or  individuals,  the  more  advanced 
educational  institutions,  the  understanding  or  gen- 
74 


THE  CURRICULUM  75 

erals,  and  the  university,  reason  or  universals. 
The  movement  of  the  mind  from  the  individual  to 
the  universal  is  the  law  of  the  learning  The  Law  of 
mind  and  the  law  of  the  unfolding  order  ^'^"^^^ 
of  knowledge.  The  lower  phases  of  knowledge  are 
mastered  by  the  lower  phases  of  mind  and  the 
higher  phases  of  knowledge  by  the  more  mature 
mind.  The  curriculum  is  an  arrangement  of  sub- 
ject-matter in  the  order  of  the  development  of  the 
learning  mind  from  the  time  the  pupil  perceives 
the  individual  until  he  is  able  through  the  dawn 
of  reason  to  grasp  the  universal. 

All  subjects  (history,  geography,  mathematics 
and  other  studies)  have  their  perceptive,  imagina- 
tive and  experimental  phase  adapted  to  the  primary 
grades.  As  the  child's  mind  unfolds  into  higher 
forms  of  judgment,  reasoning  and  intuition,  these 
same  subjects  must  increase  in  generality  and 
depth  of  meaning  until  they  require  the  highest 
form  of  human  thought  and  the  keenest  mental 
insight  to  grasp  their  intricate  purport. 

Knowledgfe  Related. — Dr.  Edward  Caird  writes: 

"Thought  is  possible  only  as  the  relation  of  the  thing  thought 
of  to  the  thinker,  and  an  object  of  thought  can  only  be  known  or 
enter  into  consciousness  in  relation  to  the  thinking  subject. " 

Not  only  is  all  human  knowledge  connected, 
science,  literature,  history  and  philosophy,  but  all 
reality  is  related  to  a  thinkable  reality.  The  thought 
in  nature,  in  history,  in  man,  in  all  things  is  not  a 
thought  which  the  human  mind  creates,  but  which 


76  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

it  discovers.  The  reason  or  thought  found  in  nature 
and  art  is  a  universal  principle  which  binds  human 
knowledge  into  one  organic  whole.  It  is  impossible 
to  know  any  one  thing  thoroughly  without  know- 
ing related  ideas,  thoughts  and  things.  In  the 
paraphrased  language  of  Tennyson, — 

If  we  knew  the  flower  in  the  crannied  wall,  we 
should  know  what  God  and  man  is. 

''From  the  very  nature  of  thought,"  says  Herbert 
Spencer,  "the  relativity  of  our  knowledge  is  infer- 
able." Every  thought  implies  a  distinction  and 
relation,  a  likeness  and  a  difference.  The  very  idea 
of  consciousness  is  possible  only  in  the 

Consciousness    _  „  i     i  •  i      .  i  •       ,  ^ 

form  01  a  relation  between  a  subject  and 
object.  Learning  is  the  formation  of  a  relation  in 
mind  parallel  to  a  relation  in  the  objective  world. 
It  logically  follows  that  all  knowledge  is  related  and 
that  thinking  and  thought  can  never  express  more 
than  a  relation.  Knowledge  is  a  life  process  since 
it  is  a  continuous  adjustment  of  internal  relations 
to  external  relations. 

The  Principle  of  Correlation. — Correlation  (concen- 
tration, coordination,  interrelation)  is  a  fundamental 
process  in  curriculum -making.  It  involves  the 
principle  of  the  relativity  of  knowledge  and 
accepts  the  doctrine  that  all  knowledge  belongs 
to  one  organic  whole.  Correlation  places  subjects 
together  in  the  curriculum  that  the  universal 
content  of  each  may  be  thoroughly  taught  and 
thought.     It  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the   world 


THE  CURRICULUM  77 

of    thought    and    the    world    of    things    are    inter- 
related  ideas. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  concentration  the 
child  to  be  educated  determines  in  a  large  measure 
both  the  subject-matter  and  the  method.  The 
natural  and  social  environments  act  upon  Doctrine  of 
the  child  and  the  child  reacts  upon  these  Concentration 
external  energies.  The  human  mind  is  constantly- 
struggling  to  free  itself  by  attaining  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  invisible,  t]:^,^^rut]i  ^of  £i];paj^,}jQn.  the#*-» 
spirit  of  the  world.  All  knowledge  depends  upon 
the  activity  of  the  mind  through  a  thought  process. 
A  thought  may  be  analyzed  into  elementary  ideas. 
An  idea  is  an  interpretation  of  an  external  energy 
working  through  matter.  All  energy,  cosmical 
and  spiritual,  has  its  origin  in  the  Infinite  and 
Eternal  Energy. 

This  Energy  transmutes  a  resident  force  into  all 
being.  This  force  originates  and  externalizes  quali- 
ties and  properties  of  bodies.  These  physical 
attributes  are  next  translated  by  the  educational 
process  into  the  thinking  mind.  The  mind  attains 
its  freedom  by  cancelling  its  estrangement  and 
returning  to  itself. 

The  entire  curriculum  is  based  upon  the  investi- 
gation of  the  processes  which  take  place  in  nature 
and  in  mind.  Form  is  the  manifestation  of  energy 
in  nature  and  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  all 
knowledge.  The  mental  process  of  interpreting 
form  is  called  observation.  Size,  weight,  density, 
resistance,    color,   sound,    odor,    taste,    and   tactile 


78  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Thought-  sensation  are  essential  thought  relations 
Relations  found  in  all  objects.  By  coming  in  con- 
tact with  these  attributes  the  child's  intrinsic 
thought  is  developed  and  language  is  made  a  neces- 
sity. It,  therefore,  follows  that  teaching  spelling, 
reading  and  composition  is  merely  an  incidental 
process  in  the  evolution  of  the  child's  thought. 

In  the  construction  of  the  curriculum,  the  center 

of    correlation    should    not    be    history,    literature, 

nor  science,  but  the  child.     As  the  child 

The  Child  .  .  . 

IS  the  central  factor  of  the  school,  all 
subject-matter  should  be  focalized  in  him.  It 
should  be  so  adjusted  to  the  life  of  the  child  as  to 
bring  out  what  is  best  in  him.  The  studies  are  best 
adapted  to  the  evolution  of  the  child's  life  which 
he  loves  best  and  which  will  do  him  the  most  good. 

Doctrines  of  the  Curriculum. — Dr.  William  James 
suggests  that  there  should  be  subjects  devel- 
oping impression  and  others  training  in  expres- 
sion. The  educative  process  consists  in  a  series  of 
reactions  following  a  series  of  receptions.  It  is  a 
process  of  grafting  a  native  reaction  into  some 
form  of  school  life.  Out  of  this  evolutionary  doc- 
trine of  mental  life  flows  the  profound  pedagogical 
principle — '^No    impression    without    expression." 

Madame  Campan  changes  this  dichotomy  into  a 
trichotomy:  '^ First  I  saw,  then  I  reflected,  and 
finally  I  wrote. "  In  other  words  there  is  a  taking- 
in  process,  an  inside  process,  and  out-going  process. 

Dr.  R.  N.  Roark  teaches  that  there  are  three 
operations  of  the  mind:     Acquisition,  assimilation. 


THE  CURRICULUM  79 

reproduction.  The  acquisitive  processes  are  per- 
ception, conception,  retention,  and  are  cultivated 
by  a  study  of  nature,  object  teaching,  the  regular 
branches,  and  in  the  elements  of  all  branches.  The 
assimilative  processes  are  conception,  reasoning, 
imaging,  willing,  and  are  cultivated  by  a  study  of 
mathematics,  language,  history,  civics,  science  and 
works  of  art.  The  reproductive  process  consists  of 
the  inner  process  of  creation  and  the  outer  process 
of  expression  and  is  cultivated  by  a  study  of 
language,  conversation,  composition,  declaiming, 
debating,  and  literary  work  in  general. 

Dr.  E.  E.  White  would  construct  a  course  of  study 
from  presentative  knowledge,  representative  knowl- 
edge, thought  knowledge.  ''A  true  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  elementary  schools  cuts  off  a  section  of 
presentative,  representative,  and  thought  knowledge 
each  year."  According  to  his  doctrine  the  mind 
through  school  life  is  gradually  passing  from 
sensation  to  reason. 

L.  J.  R.  Agassiz  indicates  that  the  movement  of 
mind  in  attaining  knowledge  is — first,  observation; 
second,  generalization;  third,  verification.  Thomas 
Huxley  says  whatever  is  taught  in  the  university 
should  be  taught  in  its  elements  in  the  primary  school. 

Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker,  in  his  theory  of 
concentration,  places  the  child  surrounded  by 
energy  and  matter  at  the  centre  of  his  system. 
The  central  subjects  of  study  which  surround  the 
child's  life  and  in  which  he  is  intensely  interested 
are    physics,    chemistry,    meteorology,    astronomy, 


80  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

geography,  geology,  mineralogy,  history,  ethnology, 
anthropology,  zoology  and  biology.  The  modes 
of  attention  growing  out  of  these  central  subjects 
are  observing,  reading,  and  hearing-language.  At- 
tention is  organically  related  with  expression  which 
is  defined  as  a  manifestation  of  thought  and  emo- 
tion. The  modes  of  expression  are  gesture,  writing, 
speech,  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  making  and 
music.  The  two  modes  of  judgment,  form  and 
number,  are  indispensable  mental  factors  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge. 

The  Herbartians  present  many  different  courses 
of  study  based  upon  the  principle  of  apperception. 
Herbart  himself  distinguishes  three  types  of  study: 
The  merely  presentative,  the  analytic  and  the 
synthetic. 

Ziller  classifies  school  studies  into  those  pertain- 
ing to  man  and  those  pertaining  to  nature.  The 
humanistic  group  comprises  history,  literature,  art 
and  languages.  The  nature  group  consists  of  geog- 
raphy, natural  history,  physics,  chemistry,  arith- 
metic, geometry,  practical  exercises  and  gymnastics. 

Dr.  William  Rein  of  Jena  coordinates  the  human- 
istic studies  and  the  nature  studies  into  a  curric- 
ulum for  his  Practice  School.  The  humanistic 
studies  are  historical  instruction,  art  instruction 
and  language.  The  nature  studies  are  geography, 
natural  history,  arithmetic,  geometry,  practical 
work  and  gymnastics. 

Dr.  Charles  DeGarmo  would  build  the  curriculum 
out  of  humanistic,  scientific  and  economic  material. 


THE  CURRICULUM  81 

The  humanistic  studies  such  as  literature  and  history- 
have  a  distinct  ethical  content.  The  development  of 
moral  character  now  takes  the  place  of  Moral 

intellectual  culture.  These  subjects  reveal  character 
the  moral  order  of  the  world,  which  must  flow  into 
the  life  of  the  child.  The  scientific  core  has  no 
ethical  content  but  has  high  educational  value. 
The  economic  group  represents  man  in  interaction 
with  nature.  It  seeks  practical  ends  and  aims  at 
physical  freedom  of  the  individual. 

Dr.  Edward  R.  Shaw  in  his  '^Outline  of  a  Course 
of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools"  uses  each  core 
as  material  from  which  are  induced  activities  of 
arrangement  and  expression.  In  the  humanistic 
group  the  materials  are  myths,  tales, 
stories,  descriptions,  songs,  poems  and 
pictures.  The  induced  activity  of  arrangement 
and  expression  growing  out  of  this  material  are 
reading,  language,  spelling  and  drawing.  In  the 
scientific  group  the  materials  are  land,  water,  sky, 
seasons,  plants,  animals,  minerals  and  forms.  The 
induced  activities  produced  by  this  material  are 
numbers,  modeling,  moulding,  measuring  and  sing- 
ing. The  materials  of  the  economic  group  are  food, 
clothing,  shelter,  industries,  occupations  and  travels. 
The  activities  created  by  this  material  are  writing, 
drawing,  paper-folding,  sewing,  making,  painting, 
buying  and  selling. 

Dr.    William    T.    Harris    has    apparently    solved 
the  problem  of  the  psychology  of  the  curriculum. 
According  to  his  analysis,  there  are  five  windows 
6 


82  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  the  soul  (subjective)  to  which  correspond  five 
groups  (objective)  of  studies:  First,  mathematics 
and  physics;  second,  biology;  third,  literature  and 
art;  fourth,  grammar  and  language  including 
logic  and  psychology;  fifth,  history  and  institutions. 
The  curriculum  should  be  built  out  of  this  material 
in  such  a  manner  that  each  group  should  be  pre- 
sented at  times  to  suit  the  development  of  the 
child.  Each  group  of  studies  represents  certain 
objective  categories  which  develop  certain  internal 
laws  of  thinking.  According  to  Aristotle  there  are 
ten  objective  categories:  Substance,  quantity, 
quality,  relation,  action,  passion,  where,  when, 
posture  and  habit,  which  correspond  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  internal  constitution  of  the  human 
The  mind.     The  categories  are  the  predicates 

Categories  ^g^^  j^y  ^^le  mlud  lu  thinking  the  world 
of  objective  reality.  To  exhaust  the  categories 
in  describing  an  object  is  to  exhaust  the  possi- 
bilities of  explanation.  The  categories,  therefore, 
express  the  nature  of  thought  and  the  nature 
of  things. 

Arithmetic  and  geography  involve  a  study  of  the 
categories  of  quality  and  quantity.  Physiology 
adds    the    categories    of    action    and    relation    and 

discusses    the    formative    life    principle. 

Grammatical  study  is  a  dual  mental  act: 
One  directed  to  form  and  the  other  to  content; 
one  to  the  real,  the  other  to  the  ideal;  one  to 
the  sentence  and  the  other  to  the  meaning.  In 
analyzing     the     English     sentence,    the     mind     is 


THE  CURRICULUM  83 

ushered   into   the  realm  of  logic  and   psychology. 
Dr.  William  T.  Harris  says: 

"The  method  of  grammar  leads  to  insight  into  the  nature  of 
reason  itself;  it  is  this  insight  which  it  gives  us  into  our  methods 
of  thinking  and  of  uttering  our  thoughts  that  furnishes  the  justifi- 
cation for  grammar  as  one  of  the  leading  studies  in  the  curriculum." 

Reading,  penmanship  and  drawing  externalize  the 
inner  man  and  reveal  and  portray  human  nature  in 
its  varied  forms.  The  genetic  principle  of  literature 
is  life  itself.  It  represents  the  soul  striv- 
ing to  realize  its  inherent  worth.  Pen- 
manship, drawing  and  art  in  general  represent  the 
highest  functions  of  the  human  soul.  History  and 
civics  reveal  to  man  the  consciousness  of  his  own 
freedom.  In  these  subjects  the  student  is  ushered 
into  the  realm  of  spirit  itself.  He  is  taught  the 
nature  and  end  of  spirit  to  be  freedom,  and  that  this 
freedom  is  attained  through  the  state,  which  is  the 
terrestrial  representation  of  spirit. 

The  Ideal  Curriculum.  —  The  ideal  curriculum 
should  be  so  constructed  that  it  will  bring  out  what 
is  best  in  the  pupil.  It  should  be  flexible,  adapted 
to  the  circumstances  but  constantly  moving  toward 
the  idea  of  personal  freedom.  It  should  put  stress 
upon  relations  and  interconnection  of  studies  and 
thereby  unify,  focalize  and  organize  the  child's 
knowledge.  History  should  be  corre- 
lated with  geography  and  civics.  There 
is  an  interconnection  of  ideas  in  these  subjects 
and  to  understand  one  is  to  know  the  other  two. 


84  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Composition  should  be  taught  in  connection  with 
nature  study,  pictures,  drawing,  history,  biography 
and  literature.  Correlating  and  interrelating  are 
not  only  pedagogical  processes  but  are  also  psy- 
chological processes.  The  correlating  process  is 
valuable  in  the  construction  of  a  curriculum 
because   thinking   is   itself   a   relating   process. 

The  ideal  curriculum  cannot  be  described  in  terms 
of  subjects  enumerated  to  accord  with  the  doctrines 
of  all  educators.  A  convention  of  educators  were 
recently  formulating  a  course  of  study  for  Normal 
Schools.  One  member  suggested  that  sociology  be 
Curricuiums  substitutcd  for  some  review  work  done  in 
Constructed  ^^le  commou  branches;  another  would 
substitute  a  study  of  Greece,  Rome  and  England 
for  the  usual  text-book  in  general  history;  still 
another  urged  that  astronomy  should  take  the  place 
of  Logic;  another  educator  would  substitute  ethics 
for  Latin,  German  or  French  for  trigonometry  and 
surveying  or  chemistry  for  Greek. 

To  one  making  a  close  study  of  this  discussion,  it 
seems  that  the  men  trained  in  science  prefer  scien- 
tific subjects  and  those  trained  in  metaphysics  insist 
Bent  that  Logic  and  ethics  belong  to  the  Normal 

Of  Mind  School  curriculum.  The  particular  bent  of 
mind  of  the  educator  rather  than  the  educational 
value  of  the  subject  may  be  traced  in  all  courses  of 
study. 

The  ideal  curriculum  can  be  constructed  only 
by  the  aid  of  psychology  and  philosophy.  The 
final  question  is   what  effect  has   a  given  subject 


THE  CURRICULUM  85 

upon  soul  development?  If  Logic  will  make  a 
clearer  thinker  and  create  a  higher  spiritual  de- 
velopment than  astronomy  then  it  has  a  higher 
educational  value  and  should  be  preferred  in  the 
construction  of  a  curriculum. 
Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  writes: 

"Since  the  pupil  is  to  find  his  true  self  in  the  thought  and  spirit 
of  the  world  about  him,  whatever  subject  reflects  in  his  conscious- 
ness the  widest  realm  of  that  thought  and  spirit  must  have  for  him 
the  greatest  value. " 

Educational  psychology  assists  the  curriculum- 
maker  in  determining  the  value  of  a  sub-  Educational 
ject  in  terms  of  human  development.    It  ya.\ue& 

teaches  that  a  given  subject  strengthens  a  given 
power  of  mind. 

"Philosophy  deals  with  the  totality  of  experience  under  the 
form  of  an  organic  system  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  thought." 

SCHWEGLER. 


THE  SCHOOL  PROCESS 

THE    HUMANISTIC   PROCESS 

« 

VII. 

THE  SOCIAL 

The  school  is  created  to  give  instruction,  to  un- 
fold the  inner  life,  and  to  develop  those  broader 
phases  of  human  growth  known  as  the  social,  the 
sesthetical  and  the  ethical  nature  of  man.  The 
humanistic  process  not  only  strengthens  the  intel- 
lectual life  but  changes  human  potentiality  into 
Humanizing  humau  actuality.  The  school  process  is 
Process  distinctly  a  humanizing  process,  because 

it  extends  beyond  the  domain  of  intellectual  culture 
and  trains  the  individual  in  the  humanization  of 
the  race.  Humanism  is  that  science  which  softens, 
refines,  civilizes  and  ameliorates  the  individual. 

The  educational  process  is  not  wholly  developed 
through  a  study  of  academic  text-books.  It  has  a 
broader  sweep  of  thought  and  includes  a  develop- 
ment of  the  social,  sesthetical  and  ethical  processes 
of  human  freedom.  The  school  is  a  social  institution 
and  education  is  a  socializing  and  humanizing 
process.  The  aesthetic  process  is  humanistic,  be- 
cause it  pictures  and  portrays  the  myriad  condi- 
tions of  human  nature.  The  highest  phase  of  the 
humanistic  process  is  ethical  or  moral  culture. 
The  ultimate  problem  in  education  is  the  character- 
forming  process. 
86 


THE  SOCIAL  87 

Social  Science. —  Educational  science,  in  recent 
years,  has  become  largely  a  social  science.  The 
educational  process  is  not  wholly  psychological  but 
intensely  sociological.  It  adjusts  the  individual  not 
only  to  his  intellectual  studies  but  also  to  his  social 
environments.  The  psychological  process 
in  education  is  a  means  to  the  develop-  Psy^hoiogtSi 
ment  of  the  individual  social  conscious-  socioio^cal 
ness.  Mental  development,  jper  se,  is  not 
the  final  aim  in  education.  The  intellectual  life 
must  have  a  social  factor  and  the  individual  must 
be  trained  in  the  social  function.  The  social  life  of 
the  school  should  grow  out  of  the  home  and  com- 
munity life.  The  social  life  in  which  the  child  parti- 
cipates in  the  school  has  its  origin  in  the  social 
consciousness  of  the  community.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  the  school  to  develop  this  stream  of  consciousness 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  child  will  live  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  community  life. 

Since  the  school  is  a  social  institution,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  the  nature  and  meaning  of 
society.  In  a  course  of  lectures  on  The  Laws 
^'The  Sociological  Process,'^  Dr.  A.  W.  o^s^^^^ty 
Small,  a  few  years  ago,  arranged  the  principles  of 
society  as  follows: 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIETY. 

1.  Society  is  composed  of  individuals  and  groups. 

2.  Society  is  a  many  of  individuals, 

3.  Society  is  a  process  of  perpetual  compromises. 

4.  Society  is  a  play  of  attractions  between  the  many  which 
make  up  its  functions. 


S8  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

5.  Society  is  a  play  of  repulsions  between  persons  niaking  up 
its  parts. 

6.  Society  is  a  state  of  constant  dependence  of  one  part  upon 
the  other. 

7.  Society  is  a  constant  effort  of  persons  who  are  separate  in 
space  and  thought  to  approach  and  understand  each  other. 

8.  Society  is  a  combination  of  persons  each  of  whom  is  affected 
by  the  same  conditions  which  influence  all  the  rest. 

9.  Society  is  a  process  of  socializing  the  individual  members. 

10.  Society  is  the  expression  of  the  social  consciousness  of  the 
members  which  compose  it. 

11.  Society  is  a  systematic  sacrifice  of  members  for  members 
and  parts  for  parts. 

12.  Society  is  a  process  of  putting  justice  into  practice. 

These  fundamental  principles  of  social  science 
explain  the  real  nature  of  the  social  organism. 
The  school  is  composed  of  individuals  not  isolated 
but  in  groups.  The  real  nature  of  the  school  is  the 
community  life  which  affects  the  thought,  actions 
Individuals  and  experience  of  the  student  body.  The 
And  Groups  ^^y^^^^  jg  ^^le  individual  '^writ  large"  for 
the  purpose  of  doing  work.  It  is  not  the  individual 
pupil,  but  the  pupil  in  the  class  and  the  pupil  in 
the  grade  that  make  up  the  school  community. 

The  school  has  that  inherent  power,  that  subtle 

spiritual  force  which  holds  the  organism  together. 

Pupils  studying  a  common  subject  and  reciting  a 

common  lesson  have  certain  sympathies 

AflSnities  ^        rr*     •    •  e  •/       r- 

and  ainmties  for  each  other.  One  pupil 
supplements  another  and  these  two  supplement  the 
teacher.  The  social  life  of  the  school  grows  and 
develops  in  proportion  to  the  strength  and  affinity 
found  in  the  pupil  and  in  the  teacher. 


THE  SOCIAL  89 

The  school  is,  however,  not  a  sympathetic  syn- 
thesis, but  an  unsympathetic  antithesis  of  teacher  and 
pupil.  The  social  principle  is  developed  by  teacher 
jostling  pupil  and  pupil  jostling  teacher.  "Every 
point  in  every  man's  life  is  related  to  every  point  in 
every  other  man's  life.''  The  pupils  are  dependent 
upon  the  teacher  and  the  teacher  upon  the  pupils. 
As  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  was  wont  to  say: 

"Every  thing  to  help  and  nothing  to  hinder."    "Responsibility.*' 

The  school  is  composed  of  ''Many  men  of  many 
minds."  It  is  not  thoroughly  homogeneous  but  is 
made  up  of  heterogeneous  individuals  of  various 
and  varied  ability.  The  school  is  a  process  of 
combining,  organizing,  and  getting  individuals  to- 
gether for  the  purpose  of  psychological  and  socio- 
logical training  and  culture. 

The  school  becomes  an  educational  solidarity 
when  teacher  and  pupils  are  so  thoroughly  organized 
into  a  compact  body,  by  the  power  of  spiritual 
energy,  that  each  individual  affects  the  Educational 
social  whole  and  the  organism  or  school  solidarity 
community  trains  the  individual.  When  a  pupil 
enters  a  school  he  is  adjusted  and  socialized  to  his 
environments.  He  is  made  to  march  to  the  music  of 
the  social  whole.  The  essential  principle  of  the 
school  and  society  in  general  is  the  fact  that  there 
exists  between  all  human  beings  an  affinity  and 
relationship.  Whatever  relation  affects  one  pupil 
affects  also  another  and  the  teacher  included. 
This  principle  of  sociology  emphasizes  the  fact  that 


90  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  school  is  an  organism  and  whatever  disturbs 
one  part  of  the  school  life  affects  all  the  others. 

The  Social  Mind. — In  a  school  of  thirty  pupils 
there  are  thirty-two  minds;  namely,  thirty  pupils, 
one  teacher  and  one  social  mind.  The  social  mind 
is  the  organized  mind  of  all  the  pupils,  about  some 
principle  of  knowledge  in  which  all  the  minds  are 
thinking  as  one.  In  studying  and  reciting  the 
Stamp  Act  all  the  minds  of  the  class  and  the 
teacher  are  fused  into  an  organic  whole. 

Pocalized 

Mental  TMs  is  the  social  mind  which  is  the  focal- 

ized mental  energy  upon  the  single  idea 
or  thought  embodied  in  this  historic  event.  The 
social  consciousness  is  made  up  of  the  individual 
mind  thinking  common  thoughts  and  expressing 
common  ideas.  The  individual  mind  organizes 
ideas  into  a  conceptual  whole,  as  the  social  mind 
organizes  the  many  ideas  of  many  individuals  into 
one  social  mind.     Dr.  A.  W.  Small  says: 

"The  content  of  social  consciousness,  and  of  the  processes  that 
take  place  in  individual  minds  as  causes  and  effects  of  the  pre- 
vailing state  of  social  consciousness,  is  pivotal  in  sociological  theory." 

The  school  process  now  becomes  a  sociological 
process  consisting  of  concessions  and  compromises. 
Herbert  Spencer's  principle  is  that : 

"Every  man  is  free  to  do  what  he  wills,  provided  he  infringes 
not  the  equal  freedom  of  any  other  man. " 

Pupils  are  permitted  to  act  as  they  choose, 
provided  they  act  right  and  in  harmony  with  the 


THE  SOCIAL  91 

spiritual  nature  of  the  school.  Since  the  school 
is  a  social  institution,  the  teacher  must  respect 
the  rights  of  the  pupils  and  pupils  must  respect 
the  teacher.  It  is  the  law  of  any  organism  that 
the  part  serves  the  whole  and  that  the 
whole  exists  in  and  through  the  parts. 
The  principle  of  justice  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
the  organic  elements  of  the  school — the  teacher  and 
the  pupil — must  be  harmonized  and  socialized, 
adapted  and  adjusted  to  each  other.  For  a  school 
to  increase  in  efficiency  it  must  be  the  embodiment 
of  the  principle  of  justice,  equality  to  all  and  special 
privilege  to  none. 

Studies  Socialized.  —  The  centre  for  correlating 
is  not  history,  science  nor  literature  but  the  social 
and  psychological  activity  of  the  child.  The  fun- 
damental factors  of  social  life  are  food,  clothing 
and  shelter.  These  should  be  made  the  centre  out 
of  which  the  school  life  should  be  evolved.  History 
expresses  the  social  life  of  the  race,  as  it  deals  with 
social    communities,    social    wholes    and 

.  Social 

social  situations.  A  clear  analysis  of  the  content 
history  process  reveals  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
sociological  science.  As  science  has  grown  out  of  race 
activities  it  is  primarily  a  socializing  factor.  Nature 
study,  the  school-garden,  the  school-kitchen  and  the 
laboratory  are  helpful  in  the  social  development  of 
the  individual.  These  subjects  are  experimental  and 
bring  out  what  is  best  in  the  student  by  a  process 
of  mingling  and  intermingling  of  pupils  during  study 
period  and  the  recitation.    Language  is  not  so  much 


92  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

an  expression  of  thought  as  a  medium  of  social 
communication.  An  individual  thinks  and  in  his 
desire  to  express  his  thoughts  he  creates  language. 
In  teaching  beginners  language,  reading  and  spell- 
ing, the  social  factor  plays  an  important  part. 
Arithmetic  should  be  evolved  out  of  the  home  life. 
Number  should  be  taught  by  thinking  and  measur- 
ing objects  connected  with  the  child's  social  ac- 
tivities— food,  clothing  and  shelter.  Denominate 
numbers  can  be  most  effectively  taught  by  entering 
into  the  social  life  of  the  child.  He  enjoys  these 
activities  so  intensely  that  he  learns  arithmetic 
incidentally.  Art,  manual  training  and  music 
have  also  large  social  factors. 

The  recitation  should  be  made  a  social  clearing- 
house. A  happy,  joyous,  social  spirit  should  per- 
vade the  recitation  period.  The  teacher  should 
kindly  assist  the  pupils,  the  pupils  should 
pleasantly  help  the  teacher  and  each 
should  cooperate  for  the  social  welfare  of  all.  In 
developing  the  thought  found  in  the  lesson  the 
pupil  is  at  the  same  time  attuned  to  the  music  of 
the  social  order  of  the  class. 

The  Social  Centre. — The  school  should  be  made 
the  social  centre,  the  Hull  House  of  the  community. 
The  socialism  taught  at  this  centre  should  be 
Socialism  of  intellectual,  spiritual  and  moral.  The 
The  School  social  life  of  the  school  will  usually  be 
the  social  life  of  the  community  plus  some  ad- 
vanced principles  of  social  reconstruction.  To 
improve  the  social  atmosphere  of  the  school  is  to 


THE  SOCIAL  93 

inject  new  ideals  into  the  community  life  in  which 
it  is  located.  Around  the  school  should  cluster  all 
those  forces  which  tend  to  place  society  upon  a 
higher  plane.  Among  these  uplifting  influences  are 
lectures,  the  library,  the  night  school,  educational 
associations  and  social  reforms. 

The  entire  school-plant  should  be  utilized  for 
the  purpose  of  disseminating  knowledge,  and  in- 
jecting new  ideals  of  life  into  the  minds  and  hearts 
of  the  entire  community.  Out  of  this  social  centre 
should  flow  an  irresistible  stream  of  influences 
which  shall  submerge  ignorance,  superstition  and 
degrading  tendencies. 

Social  Ideals. — Colonel  Parker  defines  the  school 
as  society  shaping  itself.  He  would  have  the 
school  to  be  an  ideal  community  in  which  every 
pupil  is  an  ideal  citizen.  Ideals  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  attainment 
of  the  highest  good.  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker 
says: 

"An  ideal  determines  every  thing  that  enters  into  its  realization." 

Education  is  a  process  of  setting  up  ideals  and 
by  self-activity  realizing  them.  It  should  be  the 
purpose  of  the  school  to  stimulate  the  pupil  in  such 
a  manner  that  he  will  have  no  rest  until  he  accom- 
plishes the  highest  ideals  attainable  in  life.  Some 
one  has  said  that  idealistic  philosophy  aims  to 
unfold  the  mental  faculties,  cultivate  the  heart, 
promote  self-activity,  plant  the  seeds  of  altruism, 
transform  thought  and  sweeten  life. 


94  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  school  becomes  a  social  ideal  when  the 
teacher  has  at  heart  the  pupiFs  success  in  a  degree 
equal  to  that  of  his  own;  when  the  pupil  aids  the 
^,    „ ,    ,     teacher  and   assists   his   fellow   pupils  to 

The  School  ^     ^ 

A  Social  the  extent  that  he  would  look  after  his 
own  welfare,  and  when  each  individual 
of  the  school  system — the  trustee,  the  teacher, 
the  pupil,  the  county  and  state  superintendent 
and  the  National  Commissioner  of  Education — 
looks  after  the  welfare  of  the  social  whole  with  as 
much  zeal  and  interest  as  his  own  personal  success 
in  life. 

The  monadistic  conception  of  the  school  makes 

each  pupil  independent  of  every  other  one.     Each 

pupil  is  a  monad,  psychical  in  nature  and  exercising 

no  influence.     According  to  this  doctrine 

Monadistic  ...  .  i       ,     .  c  •    i 

society  IS  an  unnatural  state  of  existence 
and  individual  instruction  is  better  than  class 
recitation.     The  monistic  conception  of  the  school 

makes  every  phase  predetermined  by  the 

whole.  It  puts  emphasis  upon  the  unity 
of  individual  pupils  and  considers  education  a 
phase  of  social  progress.  The  school  process  is 
monistic,  having  a  unitary  origin  and  aim,  and 
teleological,    because    there    is    plan    and    purpose 

running    through    the    entire    organism. 

The  organic  conception  of  the  school 
makes  the  relation  between  pupil  and  teacher 
an  intrinsic  one.  A  pupil  has  an  individual  exist- 
ence, it  is  true,  but  his  real  life  is  in  and  through 
his  social   relation,   to   other   individuals.     In   the 


THE  SOCIAL  95 

school  there  is  an  inherent  relation  existing  between 
teacher  and  pupil  and  an  inner  end  to  be  realized. 
The  school  develops  from  within  and  grows  by 
internal  adaptation  of  soul  of  pupil  to  soul  of  teacher. 
The  end  of  the  school  brings  it  into  existence,  and 
forms  its  essential  nature  which  is  the  freedom  of 
the  pupil.  The  school  as  an  organism  may  be 
defined — *^As  a  whole  whose  parts  are  intrinsically 
related  to  it,  which  develops  from  within,  and  has 
reference  to  an  end  that  is  involved  in  its  own 
nature. " 

The  social  relationship  cultivated  in  the  school 
has  its  abiding  essence  in  the  organic  nature  of 
mankind.  An  individual  does  not  exist  in  this 
world  in  and  by  himself,  but  is  always  found  in 
and  through  a  relation  to  other  human  beings. 
According  to  the  organic  social  conception  so^iai 

of  the  school  a  pupil  never  exists  alone,  ^*^'^ 

but  always  in  community  life.  It  is  the  law  of  any 
organism  if  one  part  suffers  the  whole  suffers.  If 
a  pupil  breaks  the  spiritual  thread  of  the  school  the 
whole  school  feels  the  breach  of  harmony.  We 
are  told  that  man  by  nature  is  a  social  being 
and  that  the  individual  is  an  abstraction,  and 
that  the  true  reality  is  humanity.  The  social 
atmosphere  of  the  school  enlarges  this  humanity 
and  causes  the  individual  to  follow  the  still  small 
voice  of  an  ideal  life,  whispering  truth,  beauty  and 
goodness. 

Social  Growth. — Education  is  a  systematic  proc- 
ess of  training  the  growing  mind  plus  an  external 


96  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

process  of  adjusting  the  individual  to  his  natural 
and  social  surroundings.  All  social  growth  is  con- 
ditioned upon  the  ideas,  thoughts  and  customs  of 
our  social  environment.  The  social  forces  which 
surround  the  pupil  are  as  impressive  and  educative 
as  the  intellectual  factors  of  the  school.  He  would 
be  as  idiotic  as  Kaspar  Hauser,  without  coming  in 
Human  coutact  with  humau  society.  The  pupil 
Society  jg  ^  spiritual  being  and  must  live,  move 
and  grow  under  the  educative  influence  of  human 
activities.  The  school,  the  class,  the  grade,  the 
games  and  sports  connected  with  school  life  are  social 
forces  which  adjust  the  pupil  to  his  proper  sphere 
in  the  educational  system.  When  a  pupil  first 
enters  school  he  is  required  to  act  in  harmony  with 
the  new  social  order  as  the  psychological  process 
begins.  The  sociological  process  must  go  hand  in 
hand  with  the  psychological.  In  connection  with 
his  mind  culture  he  is  socialized  at  the  chapel,  in 
the  societies,  in  the  class-room,  and  is  made  to  feel 
he  is  a  part  of  the  social  organism.  His  social 
growth  is  due  to  a  process  of  adapting  himself  to 
the  many  complex  relations  found  in  the  social 
whole  of  which  he  is  a  member.  As  his  altruistic 
nature  develops  he  gradually  begins  to  look  after 
the  welfare  of  others  in  preference  to  himself. 

"Social  progress  is  the  continuous  weakening  of  selfishness  and 
the  continuous  strengthening  of  sympathy." 

Science  teaches  that  all  progress  in  life,  physical 
and  social,  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a  constant 


THE  SOCIAL  97 

adjustment   of  equilibrium   between  the   organism 
and  its  environments.     John  Fiske  says: 

"The  advance  from  indefinite  homogeneity  to  definite  hetero- 
geneity in  structure  and  function  is  a  leading  characteristic  of  social 
progress." 

He  further  says : 

"In  social  development  corporate  life  is  more  and  more  sub- 
ordinated to  individual  life.  The  highest  social  life  is  that  in 
which  the  units  have  the  greatest  possible  freedom." 

In  his  '^Cosmic  Philosophy '^  he  states  sodai 

the    law    of    social    progress    as    follows:        Prog^-ess 

"The  Evolution  of  Society  is  a  continuous  establishment  of 
psychical  relations  within  the'Commimity,  in  conformity  to  phjrsical 
and  psychical  relations  arising  in  the  Environment;  during  which, 
both  the  Community  and  the  Environment  pass  from  a  state  of 
relatively  indefinite,  incoherent  homogeneity  to  a  state  of  relatively 
definite,  coherent  heterogeneity;  and  during  which,  the  constituent 
Units  of  the  Community  become  ever  more  distinctly  individuated." 


VIII. 

THE   ^STHETICAL 

The  humanistic  process  socializes  the  individual, 
adjusts  him  to  his  environment  and  prepares  him 
for  that  higher  phase  of  human  growth  and  activity 
known  as. the  aesthetic  process.  The  pupil  becomes 
conscious  of  his  humanity  by  studying  the  beautiful 
embodied  in  the  world  of  art.  The  study  of  art  is 
a  humanizing  process  because  it  reflects  and  pic- 
tures human  beings  in  varied  and  multiplied  forms. 
The  pupil  realizes  his  true  worth  by  incorporating 
into  his  nature  the  works  of  art  which  represent 
his  other  and  better  self.  This  otherness  is  spiritual, 
the  ideal  life  to  be  attained,  and  the  whole  aesthetic 
process  consists  in  transforming  the  original  nature 
of  the  individual  into  a  higher  spiritual  freedom. 

The  Beautiful  School. — The  school  is  beautiful 
when  the  spiritual  forces  move  freely  and  are  not 
in  bondage  to  any  energy  found  in  the  external 
organism.  Any  organism  is  beautiful  when  the 
inherent  vital  force  triumphs  over  matter;  when 
the  creative  energy  produces  an  ideal  tree,  or  work 
of  art;  and  when  for  example  the  inner  spiritual 
energy  of  the  school  governs  and  holds  in  subjection 
Organism  ^hc  outcr  objcctivc  couditions.  A  beauti- 
Beautifui  f^j  school  is  ouc  in  which  the  teacher, 
pupil  and  subject-matter  are  harmoniously  related 
and  artistically  adjusted  in  their  interaction.  If 
98 


THE  ^STHETICAL  99 

the  mechanical,  external,  objective  school  limits  the 
free  activity  of  spirit,  the  school  is  not  beautiful. 
To  make  the  school  sesthetical,  the  spiritual  process 
must  dominate  over  the  external  factors,  and  the 
machinery  must  respond  to  the  inner  heart-beat  of 
the  organism.  The  organic  unity  between  the 
teacher  and  the  pupil  must  be  the  power-house 
which  holds  within  its  grasp  all  the  external  mechan- 
ism and  sends  a  ray  of  beauty  into  every  activity 
of  the  school.  The  spiritual  energy  holding  the 
school  together  is  a  form  of  the  beautiful  which 
develops  an  important  element  in  the  child's  nature. 
The  purpose  of  the  aesthetic  process  in  the  school 
is  to  cause  the  ego  to  see  itself,  recreate  itself 
and  rethink  itself.  The  spiritual  mirrors  itself  in 
the  subjective  school  and  externalizes  itself  in 
the  objective  school.  The  school  is  the  self- 
reflection  of  the  ego  in  the  form  of  human  insti- 
tutional life. 

The  beautiful  is  born  in  the  soul;  it  is  the  inner 
self  unfolding  itself;  it  is  in  essence  spiritual.  The 
spiritual  functioning,  as  the  beautiful  has  The 

a  fundamental  scission  within  itself,  sep-  Beaut»f«i 
arates  itself  from  itself  internally  and  then  external- 
izes itself.  The  beautiful  is  a  sensible  manifesta- 
tion of  the  ideal  which,  according  to  Dr.  J.  S. 
Kedney,  inhabits  matter  and  constitutes  its  verit- 
able essence.  Hegel  teaches  that  the  beautiful  is 
an  immediate  unity  of  the  spiritual  essence  and  an 
external  form.  It  is  the  shining  of  an  idea  through 
a  sensible  medium;   namely,  a  stone,  a  tone,  color 


100  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

or  poetry.  The  artistic  takes  on  the  appearance 
of  the  sensible  in  which  is  permeated  the  spiritual. 

The  Process  of  Self -estrangement. — The  educa- 
tional process  consists  in  mind  estranging  it- 
self from  itself  and  cancelling  this  estrangement, 
returning  to  itself  enriched,  realized  and  completed. 
Mind  has  the  power  of  apprehending  itself  in  its 
otherness  and  bringing  back  to  itself  what  was  once 
Function  estraugcd.  It  is  this  active  principle 
Of  Mind  which  lays  hold  on  the  spiritual  in  art 
and  nature,  and  makes  it  a  part  of  the  souFs  own 
being.  The  thinking  mind  identifies  itself  with  its 
other  self  found  in  art  and  restores  to  itself  this 
estrangement.  It  is  the  function  of  mind  to  main- 
tain its  identity  in  its  particular  manifestations. 
Mind  becomes  satisfied,  attains  its  freedom  when  it 
permeates  all  its  products  and  makes  them  its  own. 

J.  K.  F.  Rosenkranz  makes: 

"All  culture  must  pass  through  these  two  stages — of  estrange- 
ment and  its  removal." 

This  principle  explains  the  school  process,  the 
educational  process,  the  teaching  process  and  the 
evolution  of  the  human  mind  itself.  Mind  is  first 
absorbed  in  the  objective  world;  secondly,  it  per- 
meates the  world  of  art  and  nature  and  discovers 
that  universal  principle  which  it  identifies  as  its 
Evolution  other  self.  Mind  recognizes  in  the  beauti- 
of  Mind  £^j  ^  nature  identical  with  itself  and  hence 
returns  to  itself.  This  self  is  reason,  the  essential 
element   of   both   mind   and   the   objective   world. 


THE  ^STHETICAL      ,,  .    ,    .    ,101, 

In  the  school,  in  art,  in  nature,  the  mind  discovers 
its  own  essence,  penetrates  into  its  own  being,  identi- 
fies its  own  law  in  what  seems  to  be  an  alien  exist- 
ence. The  school  as  an  aesthetic  process  emphasizes 
the  fact  that  education  is  determined  by  mind 
producing  itself  in  some  objective  form  and  realizing 
itself  by  removing  the  estrangement  and  returning 
to  its  self. 

The  Purpose  of  Art — Keats  poetically  asserts: 

"Beauty  is  truth,  and  truth  is  beauty,  that  is  all  you  know  on 
earth  and  need  to  know. " 

According  to  Matthew  Arnold — To  see  things  in 
their  beauty  is  to  see  things  in  their  truth.  Emerson 
expresses  the  same  fact: 

"Truth  and  goodness  and  beauty  are  but  different  faces  of 
the  same  All." 

Goethe  writes: 

"Beauty  is  inexplicable,  it  is  a  hovering  and  gUttering  shadow, 
whose  outline  eludes  the  grasp  of  a  definition. " 

Lotze  in  his  outline  of  ^Esthetics  defines  the 
beautiful  as — The  appearance  to  an  immediate 
intuition  of  a  unity  amongst  those  three  powers 
(law,  matter,  idea)  which  our  cognition  is  unable 
completely  to  unite.     Plato  said: 

"The  beautiful  is  the  splendor  of  the  true." 

Browning  has  truly  written: 

"We're  made  so  that  we  love 
First  when  we  see  them  painted,  things  we  have  passed 
Perhaps  a  hundred  times  nor  cared  to  see. " 


..,.102  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Wordsworth    in    describing    the    beauty    of    the 
rainbow  artistically   declares: 


"My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky: 
So  was  it  when  my  life  began; 
So  is  it  now  I  am  a  man; 
So  be  it  when  I  shall  grow  old, 
Or  let  me  die!" 


\ 


According  to  Thomas  Huxley,  The  man  who  is. 
all  morality  and  intellect,  although  he  may  be  good 
and  even  great,  is,  after  all,  only  half  a  man.  In 
the  mass  of  mankind  the  sesthetical 
faculty  like  the  reasoning  power  and  the 
moral  sense,  needs  to  be  roused,  directed,  and 
cultivated,  and  I  know  not  why  the  development 
of  that  side  of  his  nature  through  which  man  has 
access  to  a  perennial  spring  of  ennobling  pleasure 
should  be  omitted  from  any  comprehensive  scheme 
of  university  education. 

The  purpose  of  art  is  to  reveal  to  mankind  all  the 
possibilities  slumbering  within  the  human  soul,  to 
externalize  the  internal,  to  objectify  the  subjective, 
Purpose  ^o  carve  the  spirit  in  marble,  to  paint 
Of  Art  ^Yie   soul    on  canvas,  and   to  unveil  the 

rhythmical  spirit  in  song  and  verse.  The  aim  of 
art  is  to  express  what  is  most  profound  in  human 
nature,  to  liberate  the  richest  intuitions  of  mind, 
and  to  soften,  refine,  purify,  and  ennoble  the  inner 
subjective  man.  Art  portrays  pains  and  pleasures, 
sentiments  and  sorrows,  successes  and  failures.  In 
art  we  see  our  selves  objectified  and  our  real  self 


THE  .ESTHETICAL  103 

compared  with  our  ideal  self.  This  has  a  tendency 
to  lift  us  above  the  material  possessions  of  this 
world  into  the  realm  of  truth  and  righteousness. 

It  has  been  said  that  art  is  not  borrowed,  stolen 
nor  invented,  but  comes  only  by  evolution.  It  is 
a  struggle  for  expression  of  a  voice  that  will  not  be 
stilled  and  cannot  be  hushed.    Robertson  once  said: 

"What  we  want  is  not  so  much,  not  half  so  much  light  for  the 
intellect  as  dew  for  the  heart." 

To  live  constantly  in  the  presence  of  some  master- 
piece of  art  as  the  '* Apollo  Belvedere^'  or  RaphaeFs 
*' Transfiguration'^  is  really  dew  laid  upon  Dew  on 

the  heart.  One  of  the  purposes  of  art  is  The  Heart 
to  still  the  storms  of  life  and  to  keep  us  ''In  tune 
with  the  Infinite.''  The  soul  of  the  artist  must  be 
tuned  to  the  celestial  harmonies  of  the  world  for 
what  he  thinks,  he  portrays,  and  what  he  feels,  he 
reveals  in  artistic  form. 

The  Ideal  in  Art. — The  idea  or  ideal  in  art  is 
the  absolute  self-determined  spirit,  the  efficient 
force  of  the  world  and  the  divine  principle  which 
realizes  itself  in  the  human  soul.  The  nobleness, 
the  excellence,  the  beauty  in  a  work  of  art  is  a 
spiritual  essence  which  manifests  itself  in  the  intel- 
lectual, moral  and  religious  phases  of  mankind. 
These  eternal  principles  are  the  essential  Etemai 
characteristics  of  the  human  soul  which  Principles 
externalize  themselves  in  the  social,  sesthetical  and 
ethical  order  of  the  school.  What  is  truly  beautiful, 
is  ideal  spirituality  embodied  in  external  form.     It 


104  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

is  not  only  poured  into  external  form  but  returns 
from  this  outer  manifestation  into  the  inner  con- 
sciousness of  the  individual.  The  beautiful  springs 
out  of  the  human  soul  and  is  rethought  by  the 
spectator  or  interpreter.  In  the  sesthetic  process, 
as  in  the  school  process,  there  are  three  essential 
elements:  The  creative  human  soul,  the  spiritual 
essence  and  the  recipient  mind. 

The  first  is  the  artist,  musician,  poet,  sculptor, 
thinker,  the  original  energy,  the  generative  force 
which  calls  into  existence  a  new  production.  The 
creative  human  being  externalizes  himself  in  some 
outer  form  and  transforms  reality  into  ideality. 
We  see  it  in  Homer  battling  with  the  gods,  Eads 
spanning  the  Mississippi,  Raphael  painting  the 
Madonna,  Gray  writing  the  Elegy  or  Bartholdi 
creating  the  Statue  of  Liberty.  In  each  there  is  a 
stamp  of  individuality  coupled  with  the  spiritual 
essence.  This  spiritual  force  compels  the  individual 
thinker  to  utter  his  ideal  self  and  thereby  creates 
the  artist,  the  poet,  seer  and  philosopher.  The 
product  uttered  is  a  combination  of  intellect,  feeling 
and  will  and  hence  is  a  humanizing  factor  in  civiliz- 
_  ation.    The  third  principle  in  the  sesthetic 

The  ,  ,    \  .      1       , 

Esthetic  process  is  the  recipient  mind,  the  spectator, 
reader,  hearer,  interpreter,  who  rethinks 
the  art  product  and  annuls  the  estrangement.  The 
interpreter  communes  with  the  universal  spirit  by 
intuition,  mediation  and  philosophical  insight. 

The  sesthetic  process  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows:      First,    the    genetic   energy;     second,    the 


THE  .ESTHETICAL  105 

object  created  and  projected;  and  third,  the  recipi- 
ent mind  communing  with  the  individual  soul  and 
catching  a  spark  from  the  universal  creating  ma- 
chinery. In  studying  any  art  production  we  begin 
with  what  is  immediately  presented  and  then  seek 
to  ascertain  its  meaning.  The  external  appearance 
is  not  the  essential  factor  in  a  work  of  art.  The 
internal  significance  is  what  animates  the  outer 
form.  The  aesthetic  process  consists  in  the  inner 
self  unfolding  itself  into  an  outer  manifestation 
which  bears  the  universality  and  essentiality  of 
the  involved  idea. 

Classification  of  Art. — Art  is  classified  upon  the 
relation  of  the  embodied  ideal  to  the  material 
in  which  it  is  represented.  There  are  two  world 
elements  whose  intermixture  creates  the  various 
forms  of  art;  namely,  the  individual  and  the 
universal,  form  and  content,  appearance  and  reality, 
existence  and  essence,  phenomenon  and  noumenon, 
substance  and  activity,  finite  and  infinite,  expres- 
sion and  thought,  matter  and  spirit,  seen  and  un- 
seen, real  and  ideal,  object  and  creative  energy. 

In  symbolic  art  matter  predominates  over  mind. 
The  spiritual  is  weighed  down  by  the  corporal. 
It  becomes  lost  in  the  material,  struggles  to  free 
itself,  but  cannot  think  itself  aloof  from  symbolic 
the  physical.    Architecture  with  its  ^'silent  ^"^ 

earnestness  and  oriental  sublimity''  is  an  example 
of  symbolic  art.  It  does  not  represent  the  idea 
perfectly,  but  only  an  adumbration  of  it,  and  has 
been  called  ''frozen  music  and  a  petrified  prayer.'' 


106  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Symbolic  art  strives  in  vain  to  discover  pure  con- 
ceptions and  merely  paves  the  way  for  a  more 
adequate  presentation  of  the  ideal.  The  following 
are  examples  of  different  types  of  architecture: 
The  Library  of  Congress,  Italian  Renaissance; 
Parthenon,  Doric;  Athenian  Acropolis,  Ionic;  West- 
minster Abbey,  Gothic. 

In  classic  art  the  spiritual  and  the  material,  the 
ideal  and  the  real  are  presented  in  equal  proportions. 
Spirit  incarnates  itself  in  stone  and  bronze  and 
matter  becomes  merely  a  vehicle  of  thought. 
Praxiteles  is  said  to  have  permeated  the  marble 
with  the  moods  of  his  own  soul.  The  human  form 
is  the  most  adequate  expression  of  the  embodiment 
of  spirit,  but  sculpture  cannot  unveil  the  innermost 
powers  of  the  human  soul.  It  is  the  function  of 
Romantic  art  to  penetrate  into  the  secret  recesses 
of  the  human  spirit  and  to  portray  the  infinite 
Classic  possibilities  of  mind.    In  classic  art  there 

^"^  is  a  conflict  between  spirit  and  nature, 

the  ideal  and  the  real  which  tension  is  the  law  of  the 
school  and  the  law  of  the  universe.  Sculpture 
pictures  most  accurately  the  perfect  harmony  of 
the  spiritual  and  sensuous,  gives  fixed  forms  and 
creates  what  are  called  eternal  models.  Egyptian 
sculpture  symbolizes  the  spiritual  struggling  to  free 
itself  from  the  natural  as  seen  in  the  sphinx.  The 
ideal  sculpture  of  the  Greeks  attained  its  highest 
conception  in  the  forms  of  gods  which  represent 
universal  characters,  as  Zeus,  the  father  of  the 
gods;   Apollo,  the  leader  of  the  muses,  and  Athena, 


THE  iESTHETICAL  107 

the  goddess  of  wisdom.  The  gods  of  classic  art 
were  seen  in  stone  and  wood,  but  did  not  exist  in 
flesh  and  spirit.  ^'As  soon  as  reason  had  compre- 
hended God  as  spirit,  there  appear  other  ideas, 
other  sentiments,  other  demands  which  ancient  art 
is  incapable  of  satisfying,  to  which  it  cannot  attain, 
which  called,  consequently,  for  a  new  art  and  a  new 
poetry. ''  This  new  form  of  art  is  known  as  Romantic 
or  Christian.  Eight  examples  of  classic  art  are 
found  in  the  rotunda  of  the  Library  of  Congress 
which  represent  as  many  characteristics  of  civilized 
life  and  thought:  religion,  commerce,  history,  art, 
philosophy,  poetry,  law,  science. 

In  romantic  art  (painting,  music,  poetry)  mind 
and  spirit  predominate,  matter  and  phenomena 
retire.  Mind  struggles  above  matter  and  represents 
the  real  life  of  the  soul.  Spirit  frees  Romantic 
itself  from  nature,  retires  into  itself  and  ^* 

finds  its  true  inner  harmony.  Beauty  of  form  is 
now  superseded  by  beauty  of  spirit.  We  are  now 
in  the  realm  of  Christian  art  in  which  the  human 
soul  lifts  us  upward  toward  God. 

Painting  expresses  the  innermost  depths  of  the 
soul,  its  joys,  sufferings  and  conflicts.  It  portrays 
the  inner  subjectivity  of  the  spirit,  the  inner  religious 
world  and  the  scenes  of  nature  and  human 
life.  Whatever  may  take  place  in  the 
human  heart  or  soul  may  become  the  subject  in 
painting.  Painting  exhibits  the  inner  essential 
nature  of  the  soul  as  it  pours  forth  its  longings  and 
yearnings  into  an  outer  beautiful  form. 


108  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

There  are  many  paintings  of  intense  educational 
significance  in  the  Congressional  Library:  ^'Wis- 
dom" is  holding  a  tablet;  '^ Understanding/^  a 
Congressional  scroll ;  ''Knowledge/'  a  book;  ''Philoso- 
Library  ^^^,y  assumes  a  reflective  attitude.  The 
five  women  symbolizing  the  five  senses  are  unique: 
''Taste''  is  drinking  from  a  shell;  "Sight"  is  look- 
ing into  a  mirror;  "Smell"  is  enjoying  the  fra- 
gance  of  a  rose;  "Hearing"  is  listening  to  the 
murmuring  shell;  "Touch"  is  contemplating  a 
butterfly.  The  sciences  are  represented  by  female 
figures  of  exquisite  beauty  and  most  interesting 
symbolism:  "Zoology"  is  clad  in  the  skins  of 
animals;  "Physics"  holds  a  torchlight  of  investi- 
gation; "Mathematics"  is  illustrated  by  a  nude 
figure  representing  "the  naked  truth";  "Geology" 
stands  upon  a  mountain  gathering  specimens; 
"Archaeology"  is  deciphering  the  record  of  an  old 
book;  "Botany"  is  standing  upon  a  water  lily 
analyzing  its  blossom;  "Astronomy"  stands  upon 
the  earth,  with  drapery  representing  the  heavenly 
bodies;  "Chemistry"  is  symbolized  by  the  glass 
retort  and  hour-glass. 

Poetry  is  the  most  spiritual  form  of  romantic  art. 
It  is  the  artistic  expression  of  spirit  realizing  its 
freedom  and  is  no  longer  in  touch  with  the  sensuous 
world.  The  genetic  principle  of  poetry 
"^^  is    life    itself,    and    illustrates    the    soul 

struggling  to  free  itself  from  bondage.  Poetry 
disturbs  the  ideal,  loosens  the  bonds  and  creates 
within  the  individual  a  longing  for  spiritual  free- 


THE  iESTHETICAL  109 

dom.  The  constructive  energy  of  literature  is  the 
soul  in  constant  stress  to  realize  its  true  nature. 
Literature  is  a  form  of  self-realization  because  it 
assists  the  individual  in  casting  off  his  shell  and 
attaining  his  true  worth.  It  awakens  within  the 
individual  a  consciousness  of  his  many  limitations 
and  idealizes  before  him  a  life  worthy  to  be  realized. 
The  chief  function  of  literature  is  to  liberate  the 
human  soul  and  to  assist  it  in  gaining  its  inherent 
worth.  Homer,  Dante,  Shakespeare  and  Goethe 
are  four  great  literary  writers  who  have  portrayed 
in  artistic  form  the  inner  creative  activity  of  the 
human  soul  and  as  Aristotle  says — ^'have  to  do 
with  what  is  universal." 

Music  is  a  form  of  art  which  gives  expression  to 
the  inward  consciousness  of  the  soul.  It  annihilates 
form  and  gives  expression  to  the  longings,  yearn- 
ings and  aspirations  of  the  spirit  within, 
and  has  been  called  spiritual  existence 
put  in  motion.  Music  is  spiritual  because  it  is  the 
soul  that  sings  and  inspires  the  listener  as  no  other 
work  of  art.  It  is  the  function  of  music  to  assist 
in  spiritual  freedom  by  giving  expression  to  the 
thrill  of  the  soul  in  outer  vibrations  of  tones  and 
by  contrasting  the  cold  intellect  with  the  joyous 
emotions.  It  awakens  the  innermost  chords  of  life, 
expresses  in  sound  the  activity  of  spirit,  sweetens 
the  disposition,  tempers  the  soul,  fashions  it  according 
to  the  laws  of  rhythm  and  harmony,  calms  the 
emotions,  liberates  the  soul,  and  transforms  it  into 
the  realm  of  a  purer  and  sweeter  atmosphere. 


110  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  most  progressive  educators  are  recommend- 
ing the  master  productions  (the  great  symphonies, 
the  oratorios,  and  operas)  to  be  reproduced  in  school 
to  develop  the  pupiPs  aesthetic  nature.  For  students 
to  hear,  love  and  appreciate  Beethoven^s  ''Moon- 
light Sonata"  is  to  be  elevated  to  a  higher  life  of 
beauty  and  to  be  tuned  to  the  celestial  harmonies 
of  the  world.  To  illustrate  the  profound  significance 
of  such  a  work  of  art  upon  the  human  soul.  Dr. 
William  T.  Harris  suggests  the  following  interpre- 
Mooniight  tation:  The  ''Moonlight  Sonata"  was 
Sonata  written     by     Beethoven     when     he     was 

recovering  from  a  disappointment  in  Hfe.  The  first 
movement  is  soft  and  floating  and  portrays  the 
soul  musing  upon  a  memory  which  deeply  affects 
it.  The  surrounding  is  dim,  as  seen  in  moonlight, 
and  the  soul  is  lit  up  by  a  reflected  light  at  the 
memory  of  a  past  bliss.  On  account  of  this  feeling 
of  borrowed  light  the  Sonata  in  C  Sharp  Minor  has 
been  called  by  Americans  "The  Moonlight  Sonata." 
Sadly  the  soft  gliding  movement  continues  and 
more  distant  grows  the  prospect  of  experiencing 
again  the  remembered  happiness.  Only  for  a  mo- 
ment can  the  throbbing  soul  realize  its  dreams  and 
the  plaintive  Minor  changes  to  Major.  At  the 
remembrance  of  renunciation  the  soul  is  plunged 
into  grief  and  despair,  a  sepulchral  echo  comes  from 
the  base  and  all  is  stilled. 

In  the  next  movement  Beethoven  realizes,  "We 
must  separate.  Farewell."  The  musical  phrase 
expressing  this  thought  lingers  in  its  striving  to 


THE  iESTHETICAL  111 

shake  off  the  grasp  and  get  free.  The  hands  will 
not  let  each  other  go.  The  phrase  runs  into  the 
next  and  back  to  itself  and  will  not  be  cut  off. 
In  the  trio,  there  seems  to  be  the  echoing  of  sobs 
that  comes  from  the  depths  of  the  soul  as  the  sorrow- 
ful words  are  repeated.  The  buried  past  still 
comes  back  and  holds  up  its  happy  hours  while 
the  shadows  of  the  gloomy  future  hover  before 
the  two  renunciations!  This  movement  is  very 
short  and  is  followed  by  the  Finale,  *'No  grief 
of  the  soul  can  be  conquered  except  through 
action/'  says  Goethe,  and  Beethoven  expresses 
the  same  sentiment,  and  in  the  third  movement 
the  soul  is  depicted  in  endeavoring  to  escape 
from  itself  and  to  cancel  its  individualism  through 
contact  with  the  real. 

In  the  first  movement  of  the  Sonata,  Beethoven's 
soul  is  involved  with  Julia.  She  does  not  reciprocate 
his  devotion  and  her  renunciation  leaves  his  soul 
devoid  of  that  universality  that  it  would  have 
obtained  had  she  reciprocated  his  love.  Hence  the 
soul  must  find  surcease  of  sorrow  through  action, 
through  will  or  practical  determination.  How 
fiercely  the  soul  rushed  into  the  world  of  action  in 
the  Finale!  Beethoven  plunges  through  life,  now 
and  then  overcoming  sorrow  and  grief  and  now  and 
then  swooning  beneath  the  weight  of  sorrow  for 
his  lost  love.  The  lost  chord  of  his  devotion  oc- 
casionally reverberates  a  minor  tone  through  his 
soul,  but  he  awakens  from  his  dream  and  drowns 
his  sorrow  in  action. 


112  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

To  study  such  a  classical  production  and  to 
listen  to  its  music  are  of  intense  value  to  pupils 
and  pedagogical  students.  They  are  given  a  true 
Classical  lusight  iuto  the  creative  spirit  of  art 
Productions  productious  and  are  enabled  to  appro- 
priate unto  themselves  the  universal  principles  of 
art  creations.  The  aspiring  pedagogical  student 
should  be  familiar  with  at  least  the  following  great 
musical  productions:  Beethoven — Sonata  Pathet- 
ique  Op.  13;  Variations  in  C  Minor;  Rondo  in  G 
Minor;  Turkish  March;  Sonata  Impassionata,  Op. 
57.  Chopin — Sonata  in  B  Flat  Minor;  Fantasie 
in  F  Minor.  Handel — The  Harmonious  Black- 
smith. Bach — Chromatic  Fantasie  and  Fugue  in 
D  Minor.  Haydn — Fantasie  in  C  Minor.  Mozart — 
Variations  in  F  Major.  Liszt — Rhapsodies.  Wagner 
— Death  of  Love.  Rubinstein — Valse  Caprice. 
Mendelssohn — Songs  without  Words. 


IX. 

THE  ETHICAL 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  the  humanistic  process 
of  the  school  is  to  make  the  pupil  ethical.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  intellectual,  social  and  sesthetical 
processes  found  in  the  school  there  is  also  Moralizing 
a  moralizing  process  into  which  the  pupil  Process 

must  now  be  introduced.  To  develop  character, 
to  strengthen  the  individual  moral  nature,  to  tone 
up  the  child's  ethical  ideals,  constitute  the  final 
purpose  of  the  humanizing  process  of  the  school. 
To  humanize  is  to  soften,  to  make  gentle,  to  refine, 
to  civilize  and  to  give  character  to  individuality. 
The  school  must  lead  the  child  beyond  the  domain 
of  the  intellectual,  beyond  the  realm  of  the  social 
and  sesthetical  into  the  highest  department  of 
culture  known  as  the  ethical. 

The  Pupil  Ethical.  —  The  school  now  assumes 
its  highest  function  of  transforming  the  pupil's 
original  nature  into  an  ideal  nature.  Any  educative 
process  is  moral  —  when  it  develops  the  human 
soul;  when  it  stirs  up  the  inner,  subjective  nature 
of  the  individual;  when  it  gives  the  pupil  an  aspira- 
tion and  ideal  for  higher  life.  It  is  truly  an  ethical 
process  to  teach  a  lesson  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
pupil  can  see  in  it  his  other  self.  To  see  in  a  history 
lesson  his  ideal  self  and  to  touch  the  spiritual 
chord  in  a  poem  is  as  much  an  ethical  process  as 
8  113 


114  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Ethical  to  develop  the  will.  Ethical  training 
Training  ghould  Stimulate  the  whole  soul  of  the 
individual.  To  train  a  pupil  in  forming  accurate 
judgments,  to  drill  him  upon  the  facts  of  science  is 
ethical,  because  it  gives  the  pupil  an  upward  tend- 
ency in  life.  To  demonstrate  the  Pythagorean 
theorem  is  as  truly  moral  as  to  understand  and 
realize  the  inner  nature  of  history  or  to  absorb  the 
spiritual  content  of  a  poem.  The  joy  of  a  lesson 
learned,  of  a  proposition  in  geometry  demonstrated, 
or  of  a  syllogism  of  logic  understood,  affects  the 
whole  ethical  nature  of  the  pupil.  Whatever 
touches  the  intellect,  whatever  arouses  the  will, 
whatever  disturbs  the  emotional  nature  and  what- 
ever tones  up  the  entire  being,  is  an  ethical  act  in 
teaching. 

The  Law  of  Ethics. — The  ultimate  law  of  ethics 
affirms  that  the  self-active  mind  must  not  contradict 
itself  and  that  no  artificial  stimulus  is  necessary 
to  cause  a  pupil  to  study,  to  think,  to  learn.  Dr. 
Arnold  Tompkins  asserts  that  when  a  pupil  is 
studying  for  a  prize,  rather  than  for  the  thought 
in  the  lesson,  he  is  practicing  deceit  with  his  own 
thought  processes  which  is  as  immoral  as  to  prac- 
tice deceit  with  his  neighbor.  According  to  this 
great  educational  thinker  it  is  entirely  wrong  to 
introduce  per  cents  or  an  examination  as  a  stimulus 
The  Mind  between  the  pupil  and  the  subject  studied 
Learns  f^j.    j^    jg    ^^    dircct    oppositiou    to    the 

learning  process.  The  mind  learns  by  struggling 
directly  with  the  thought  of  the  subject  and  by  bring- 


THE  ETHICAL  115 

ing  itself  into  a  living  relation  with  the  thoughts 
and  ideas  of  the  lesson  to  be  learned.  The  child 
through  his  own  self-activity  strives  to  attain  the 
thought  of  the  lesson;  he  is  hungering  and  thirst- 
ing after  the  spirit  of  the  universe.  To  interfere 
with  this  self-activity  would  place  the  pupil  in  a 
wrong  attitude  toward  truth  and  would,  therefore, 
be  an  immoral  act. 

The  school  is  an  educational  institution  for 
training  the  pupil  into  positive  ethical  relations. 
The  institutional  pupil  is  taught  to  see  in 

•1      1  •        •  1  Doctrine 

his   fellow  pupil    his   ideal    potential  self       of  school 
and   that   he    must  subordinate  his  indi- 
vidual self  to  the  larger  life  of  the  school.     The 
true  pupil  loses  his  life  in  the  school  for  the  good 
of  others  and  thereby  realizes   his  true  self,  for — 

"He  that  findeth  his  hfe  shall  lose  it." 

He  must  gradually  be  led  to  see  that  reason  is 
the  inherent  principle  of  the  school  and  the  funda- 
mental basis  of  his  own  nature.  He  attains  spiritual 
freedom  by  adjusting  his  life  to  the  inner  life  and 
thought  of  the  school. 

Altruism  is  a  method  of  thought,  a  process  of 
self-realization,  a  rule  of  action,  a  law  of  control 
and  one  of  the  deepest  principles  in  human  nature. 
As  a  law  of  life  egoism  comes  before  altruism,  for 
a  creature  must  live  before  it  can  act.  However, 
altruism  is  just  as  essential,  for  a  being  cannot 
exist  without  depending  upon  others.  Egoism  and 
altruism  are  coessential,  as  living  for  others  is  a 


116  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

process  of  living  for  self.  The  doctrine  of  the  school 
should  be  founded  upon  the  moral  principle — ^'Thou 
shall  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.^^ 

As  a  child  must  exist  before  it  acts,  egoism 
precedes  altruism;  otherwise  there  would  be  no 
self  to  help  another.  However,  what  one  is  physi- 
cally, mentally  and  morally  depends  as 
Versus  much  upon  others  (altruism)  as  upon  self 

(egoism).  All  human  conduct  which 
grows  out  of  attention  wholly  to  self  or  wholly  to 
others  will  certainly  be  deficient  of  an  essential 
element.  Self-sacrifice  and  self-preservation  are 
inherent  tendencies  of  life.  It  is  nevertheless  man's 
prerogative  to  live  in  and  through  beings  other 
than  himself.  Altruism  is  said  to  be  the  name  of 
a  tendency  and  may  be,  therefore,  physical,  psychi- 
cal or  social.  It  is  the  intent  and  not  the  result  that 
makes  the  deed  altruistic.  If  for  selfish  purposes 
I  do  good  to  others,  I  am  no  less  an  egoist  although 
I  have  made  others  happy.  If  my  property  is 
destroyed  and  I  cannot  pay  my  debts,  I  am  no  less 
an  altruist  although  I  cannot  meet  my  obligations. 
It  is,  therefore,  the  intent  which  makes  the  act  moral. 

There  is  a  constant  conflict  between  egoism  and 
altruism.  It  is  the  educator's  imperative  duty  to 
ascertain  which  is  the  law  of  the  school  and  which 
is  the  law  of  life.    Kant  would  say: 

"  Nothing  should  be  done  which  we  could  not  see  done  universally. " 

Schopenhauer  claims  that  pity  is  the  foundation 
for  right  conduct  and  affirms: 


THE  ETHICAL  117 

"In  pity  a  man  comes  to  a  sense  of  the  real  oneness  in  essence 
of  himself  and  his  neighbor. " 

He  implies  that  an  individual  directly  recognizes 
in  others  his  own,  true,  ideal  self. 

The  school  like  the  plant  and  animal  has  an 
inner  law  and  life.  The  ideal  perfection  of  its  nature 
is  a  potentiality  hidden  within  which  realizes  itself 
by  its  own  self-productive  activity.  The  school  is 
not  a  blind  force  in  contact  with  another  blind 
force,  but  a  deep  struggle  with  reason  and  an 
immanent  warfare  within.    It  is  a  tension  gchooi 

between  the  actual  and  the  ideal,  between  Tension 
what  a  pupil  is  and  what  he  should  become.  It  is 
the  very  essence  of  school  as  it  is  of  mind  itself  to 
be  divided  against  itself,  to  win  its  ideal  freedom 
by  an  internal  struggle.  Man  rises  out  of  the  life  of 
nature,  by  means  of  a  School,  into  a  moral  atmos- 
phere; by  means  of  the  State,  into  civil  freedom; 
by  means  of  the  Church,  into  a  religious  life. 

The  Moral  Process.  —  That  which  makes  one 
a  moral  being  is  a  universal  essence  which  tran- 
scends the  particular.  Thought  and  reason  consti- 
tute the  universal   element  of  mankind; 

.  .  Individual 

appetite    and    desire    are   the    particular.  versus 

Thought  and  reason  are  constantly  at 
war  with  appetite  and  desire.  The  object  of  desire 
is  the  particular  while  the  end  of  reason  is  boundless. 
It  is  reason  and  intelligence  that  make  an  individual 
moral.  The  pupil  grows  into  a  moral  life  by  trans- 
forming his  lower  self  into  a  higher  one.  There  is 
a  moral  order  in  the  school  which  must  flow  into 


118  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  pupiFs  life  if  he  realizes  the  perfection  of  his 
being.  The  school  attains  moral  perfection  when 
the  pupil  loves  and  obeys  others  as  he  would  him- 
self. The  individual  and  universal  Hfe  are  now 
unified  and  moral  freedom  attained.  The  child  in 
school  is  so  organically  related  with  the  moral 
atmosphere  of  the  school  that  very  soon  he  identi- 
fies himself  with  the  moral  life  of  the  race.  The 
pupil  attains  moral  perfection  when  his  universal 
nature  controls  and  transforms  his  lower  life.  Dr. 
John  Caird  in  working  out  this  ethical  doctrine 
defines  morality  as  the  identification  of  the  individ- 
ual with  the  universal  life,  the  surrender  of  the 
private  to  the  social  self.  He  finds  in  the  moral 
life  the  solution  of  the  contradiction  between  the 
natural  and  the  spiritual,  the  actual  and  the  ideal, 
the  individual  and  the  universal  nature  of  man. 

In  the  school  process  the  child  has  duties  to 
himself,  duties  to  pupils,  and  duties  to  God.  These 
are  not  absolute  distinct  functions,  for  a  duty  to 
God  involves  a  duty  to  self  and  others 
also.  In  fact  these  three  forms  of  duties 
are  interrelated  and  correlated.  It  is  the  pupil's 
duty  to  self  to  offer  to  the  moral  atmosphere  of  the 
school,  a  clean  perfect  body,  to  perform  assigned 
tasks  joyously  and  cheerfully,  and  to  assist  in 
elevating  the  moral  tone  of  the  school.  The  pupil 
must  at  all  times  obey  the  law  of  truth  and  integ- 
rity and  live  in  harmony  with  the  divine  idea. 
The  test  of  a  pupiFs  moral  nature,  however,  lies  in 
his  relationship  with  his  fellow  pupils.     He  must 


THE  ETHICAL  119 

not  only  live  in  accordance  with  the  moral 
ideal  but  he  must  assist  others  in  growing  and 
developing  into  the  highest  ideals  known  to  human 
beings. 

As  the  ethical  process  is  so  important  in  the  thought 
and  structure  of  the  school,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
a  brief  study  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  ethical 
concept.     The  origin  of  the  ethical  idea 

.  .    .  .  Origin  of 

is  one  with  the  origm  of  knowledge  itself.  Ethical 

There  are  four  schools  of  ethical  thought, 
the  intuitional,  the  transcendental,  the  utilitarian 
and  the  evolutional  which  discuss  the  ethical  con- 
sciousness. According  to  the  first  and  second 
schools,  ethical  ideas  are  intuitive;  according  to 
the  third  and  fourth,  empirical. 

The  intuitional  school  regards  the  ethical  concept 
innate,  a  matter  of  pure  intellection  or  a  faculty 
of  sensing  the  right  as  one  would  an  apple  blossom. 
Modern  intuitionalism  combines  the  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  element  and  makes 
conscience  a  synthesis  of  these  two  factors.  Accord- 
ing to  this  doctrine  there  is  slumbering  within  the 
principle  of  oughtness.  Kant's  categorical  imper- 
ative is  the  corner-stone  of  the  intuitional  school. 
There  spontaneously  arises  within  the  soul  an  obliga- 
tion to  do  or  not  to  do  a  thing  to  which  reason 
makes  no  appeal.  It  is  claimed  by  the  advocates 
of  this  doctrine  that  the  ethical  consciousness  is 
universal  and,  therefore,  possessed  by  all  persons. 
It  is  ^'the  moral  law  within ''  that  guides  and 
experience  is  not  necessary  to  teach  us  ethical  ideas. 


120  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

According  to  the  transcendental  theory,  moral 
consciousness  is  a  phase  of  the  eternal  reason  found 
Transcen-  ^^  ^ud  through  all  things.  Transcen- 
dentalism dentalism  teaches  that  the  world,  man, 
nature,  history,  science,  art,  religion  and  all  being 
are  manifestations  of  the  eternal  consciousness. 
That  conduct  is  best  which  most  perfectly  mirrors 
the  mind  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the  creative  and 
sustaining  power  of  all  that  is.  It  is  the  duty  and 
privilege  of  each  person  in  the  world  to  realize  his 
possibilities,  and  try  to  transform  his  real  into  his 
ideal  attainment.  The  ethical  axiom  of  this  school 
is,  ''Be  a  person,  and  respect  others  as  persons. '' 
This  doctrine  is  usually  stated  as  the  law  of  self- 
realization. 

Each  pupil  in  developing  his  own  personality 
should  assist  every  other  pupil  because  each  in- 
dividual consciousness  is  related  to  that  eternal 
consciousness  which  is  the  source  of  all  life  and 
thought.  There  is  within  the  school  a  social  soli- 
darity and  also  an  ethical  solidarity  of  pupils  based 
upon  the  profound  principle  of  the  unity  of 
mankind. 

The  utilitarian  doctrine  discusses  the  good  rather 
than  the  right,  and  regards  ethical  ideas  as  a  result 
of  experience.  According  to  one  thinker  conduct 
utjii.  should  be  regulated  and  harmonized  with 

tarianism  ^^^  plcasurcs  of  the  sensibilities  and  ac- 
cording to  another  the  pleasures  should  be  refined 
and  guided  by  prudence.  Pleasure  must  result  in 
conduct  which  is  conducive  to  the  greatest  happi- 


THE  ETHICAL  121 

ness  to  the  greatest  number.  These  pleasures  are 
intellectual  and  moral  and  lead  to  the  development 
of  the  total  single  self. 

The  theory  of  evolution  teaches  that  conduct  is 
due  not  to  individual  but  to  race  experience.  As- 
every  act  is  designed  to  fulfill  a  certain  end  in  life, 
the  ethical  concept  is  the  result  of  a  long 

.  nt       •    ,        Evolutionism 

series  of  evolutionary  changes.  Society 
is  an  organism  made  up  of  many  individual  cells 
and  the  healthy  condition  of  the  whole  depends 
upon  the  ideal  condition  of  each  person  making  up 
the  organism.  The  bond  of  union  of  the  evolution- 
ist is  organized  human  life,  while  that  of  the  trans- 
cendentalist  is  spiritual  unity.  According  to  the 
former — ''We  are  born  not  into  a  chaotic  crowd, 
but  into  an  organized  army,  and  we  must  learn  to 
keep  step  and  rank  and  to  obey  orders.  ^'  According 
to  the  latter — ''The  ethical  ideal  is  a  will  to  know 
what  is  true,  to  make  what  is  beautiful.'' 

An  Ethical  Organism. — Whatever  may  be  the 
origin  and  nature  of  the  ethical  concept,  the  school 
is  a  moral  institution  and  has  for  its  final  purpose 
the  training  of  pupils  into  a  positive  ethical  life. 
The  individual  pupil  realizes  his  highest  type  of 
moral  perfection  in  the  social  whole  and  attains 
moral  worth  only  in  mingling  with  his  fellows  in 
the  school  community.  The  true  pupil  is  the  ra- 
tional pupil  made  so  in  the  school  as  an  organic 
whole.  The  rational  order  of  the  school  flows  into 
the  life  of  the  pupil  and  creates  within  him  a  desire 
to  live  in  the  highest  good. 


122  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  ultimate  aim  of  the  school  process  is  to  trans- 
form the  potential  spiritual  pupil  into  an  actual 
idealized  oughtness.  Besides  intellectual,  social 
and  aesthetic  culture  the  school's  highest  function 
is  to  develop  the  individuaFs  moral  consciousness. 
Morality  is  not  what  a  pupil  is,  what  he 

^^  might  be,  what  he  could  be, — but,  what 

lie  ought  to  be.  This  ought-to-be  is  not  merely  a 
wish-to-be  but  a  determination  to  accomplish  some- 
thing worthy  of  the  highest  ideal  in  life.  It  is  not 
what  an  individual  is  that  is  essential,  but  what  he 
hopes  to  become  that  determines  his  aim  in  life. 
A  natural  law  is  a  law  that  is,  but  a  moral  law  is 
a  law  that  ought  to  be.  The  categorical  imperative 
means  that  we  must  do  what  is  right  when  we  know 
what  is  right  and  the  ancient  thinker  is  correct  in 
asserting  that  knowledge  is  virtue.  As  there  are 
certain  categories  in  the  intellectual  life  which 
belong  to  all  human  beings,  so  are  there  certain 
universal  moral  principles  which  guide  human 
conduct. 

The  ethical  organism  looks  after  the  conduct  and 
happiness  of  pupils  and  trains  them  to  live  in  har- 
mony with  the  ideals  of  life.  It  sets  up  a  moral 
Moral  standard  and  inculcates  moral  principles, 

standard  rp|^g  moral  Hfc  of  a  school  should  be  the 
moral  life  of  a  community  plus  a  high  standard  of 
perfection  to  be  realized  in  the  educational  process. 
Pupils  should  be  lifted  up  into  a  higher  life  of  moral 
responsibility  and  made  to  live  in  conformity  with 
the  highest  types  of  human  progress.     Each  lesson 


THE  ETHICAL  123 

and  each  recitation  should  make  the  pupil  ethical 
through  intellectual  facts,  through  volitional  train- 
ing and  through  emotional  aspirations.  The  pupil 
becomes  moral  by  living  in  and  through  the  ethical 
organism  which  administers  to  the  pupil's  highest 
aspirations  of  life. 

School  Ethics. — The  school  interprets  and  ap- 
plies ethical  ideas  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  its  nature 
and  function.  The  teacher  must  understand  the 
motive  and  intention  of  a  pupil  and  govern  him 
through  a  knowledge  of  his  habits,  character  and 
former  conduct.  School  duties  must  be  regulated, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  create  school  happiness. 

Happiness 

No  school  is  successfully  taught  that  does 
not  make  the  children  happy  and  that  does  not 
send  a  thrill  of  joy  through  each.  Happiness  ethics 
is  school  ethics,  and  the  greatest  happiness  to  the 
greatest  number  is  a  pedagogical  maxim  worthy 
of  consideration. 

*^  Politeness  is  to  do  and  say  the  kindest  thing 
in  the  kindest  way,"  and  is  one  of  the  deepest 
principles  of  the  school  because  it  recognizes  in 
other  pupils  the  ideal  potential  self.  True  polite- 
ness  in   school   recognizes   the    worth   of 

Politeness 

each  individual  pupil  and  seeks  to  help 
others  to  become  ideal  in  character.     The  teacher 
must  be  polite  to  pupils,  pupils  must  be  polite  to 
the  teacher  and   fellow  pupils   and  each 

11  '  L       p  Order 

recognize  m  the  other  an  organic  part  of 

the  school  whole.     Order  is  not  only  the  first  law 

of   heaven,  but  the  first  requisite  of  a  successful 


124  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

school.  School  discipline  should  not  come  from 
without,  but  from  within,  in  the  teaching  process. 
To  teach  to  govern  is  a  better  law  than  to  govern  to 
teach.  Good  government  can  be  secured  only  by- 
loving  the  profession,  and  having  an  interest  in  the 
subjects  taught  and  the  children  to  be  educated. 
Truthfulness  is  one  of  the  essential  school 

Truthfulness        .  i     i  .      i 

Virtues  as  it  cements  and  binds  teacher 
and  pupil  together  into  one  organic  unity  of  thought 
and  action.  For  a  pupil  to  practice  deceit  in  school 
is  paving  the  way  to  practice  deceit  in  business, 
in  politics,  in  the  professions  and  in  all  the  voca- 
tions of  life.  The  pupil  must  be  taught  obedience 
to  the  law  of  the  school  and  thereby 
obedience  to  the  teacher.  In  obeying  the 
inner  nature  of  the  school  the  pupil  is  obeying 
himself  for  the  school  is  an  expression  of  the  pupil's 
better  self.  The  teacher  must  set  forth  the  doctrine 
that  self-sacrifice  is  the  law  of  self-realization  and 
that  pupils  must  be  taught  to  sacrifice  their  own 
pleasures  in  the  school  for  the  happiness  of  others. 
Self.  One  of  the  chief  school  virtues  is  honesty 

Sacrifice  ^f  purposc  in  the  daily  work.  Honesty 
in  the  preparation  of  work  is  as  good  policy  in  the 
school  as  it  is  in  life. 

Industry  is  one  of  the  chief  school  virtues  while 
idleness  and  inattention  are  disorganizing  factors  in 
every  recitation.     A  good  school   is  one 
in  which  each  pupil   is  actively  engaged 
in  some  form  of  work  and  one  in  which  the  incen- 
tive to  work  is  found  in  the  subjects  taught  and  not 


THE  ETHICAL  125 

in  some  external  matter.  The  teacher  who  inspires 
the  pupil  to  work  for  the  work's  sake  and  not  for 
per  cents  or  prizes  has  attained  a  maximum  of 
skill  in  his  profession.  The  teacher  who  has  the 
ability  to  inspire  the  pupil  to  long  for  truth  and 
righteousness  and  to  have  no  peace  but  in  the 
pursuit  of  them  has  attained  a  high  standard  in 
the  profession  of  teaching. 

The  pupil  must  be  taught  self-respect,  self- 
control,  and  self-restraint.  He  is  an  element  of 
the  social  and  ethical  organism  and  must  deny 
himself  pleasures  and  happiness,  for  the  geif. 

sake  of  others.     Justice   prevents  pupils  control 

from  infringing  upon  the  rights  of  others  and  is  a 
universal  form  of  morality,  because,  it  prefers  the 
general  good  to  individual  happiness.  In  every 
recitation  each  pupil  must  respect  the 
rights  of  others  and  subordinate  his  own 
desires  and  wishes  for  the  good  of  others.  Egoism 
and  altruism  are  ultimate  ethical  principles  and 
express  the  rational  order  of  the  school.  These 
coessential  principles  and  rational  freedom  have 
been  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter. 

Self-realization  is  the  aim  in  ethics  and  education. 
The  end  of  life  must  be  a  development  in  character 
— perfection  rather  than  happiness.  The  true  self 
can   be   realized   only   by   sacrificing  the  seif- 

lower  self.  The  final  problem  in  ethics  ^^^^^^^^ 
and  the  ultimate  aim  in  education  must  be  tested 
in  terms  of  the  realization  of  the  rational  self. 
The  supreme  law  of  every  educational  process  is 


126  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

to  make  the  best  of  self  possible.  The  pupil  is  to 
develop  his  own  personality  to  the  fullest  extent 
and  in  doing  so  he  is  to  assist  in  the  development 
of  other  personalities  associated  with  him.  The 
duty  to  self  and  duty  to  others  are  coordinated  by 
the  profound  world  principle  that  each  individual 
pupil  is  a  part  of  the  eternal  consciousness  and  that 
pupils  are  fellows  by  virtue  of  a  common  relation 
to  the  Infinite  Mind. 

The  Moral  Life. — All  educators  agree  that  the 
end  and  aim  of  the  educational  process  is  moral 
culture.  Teachers  are  not  satisfied  with  facts 
Moral  learned,    the    taste    cultivated,    and    the 

Culture  intelligence  trained,  but  seek  to  develop 

the  pupil  into  a  noble  character.  A  pupil  may  have 
a  keen  and  discriminating  perception,  a  memory 
stored  with  the  fundamental  truths  of  nature  and 
human  nature,  a  clean,  cold,  logical  intellect,  but 
if  the  moral  life  has  not  been  strengthened,  the 
highest  ideal  of  the  school  has  not  been  attained. 
To  realize  moral  perfection,  the  inner  spiritual  life 
of  the  child  must  be  attuned  to  the  moral  order  of 
the  world,  the  heart  must  be  made  to  beat  in  unison 
with  divine  harmonies  and  the  soul  made  to  respond 
to  the  noblest  ideals  of  human  growth,  human 
culture  and  human  freedom. 

Whatever  sharpens  the  intellect,  whatever  arouses 
the  emotion  and  whatever  develops  the  volitional 
nature,  increases  the  moral  capacity  and  gives 
stamina  to  moral  character.  While  every  well- 
regulated  school  enlarges  the  moral  life,  while  all 


THE  ETHICAL  127 

good  teaching  is  ethical,  and  while  any  subject 
taught  in  a  correct  manner  affects  the  moral  worth 
of  the  individual,  literature  is  especially  valuable 
to  help  the  pupil  form  high  ideals  of  life.  We 
know  what  we  are,  but  literature  teaches  us  what 
we  ought  to  be,  and  the  strongest  impulse  to 
improvement  is  to  become  dissatisfied  with  our 
present,  real  self  in  comparison  with  the  future 
ideal  self.     The  ideal  self  is  not  an  ignis  The 

fatuus,  but  the  soul's  consciousness  of  its  Weaiseif 
possibilities  through  a  determined  choice  and  a 
preserving  activity.  Ideals  in  literature  elevate 
the  soul,  animate  and  thrill  us  with  a  desire  to 
know  truth  and  to  act  it  in  our  daily  lives.  By 
means  of  poetic  inspiration,  the  student  is  made  to 
feel  the  beauty,  truth  and  pathos  of  physical  nature^ 
and  human  life  is  given  an  insight  and  yearning 
for  the  divine  ideal.  He  is  saturated  with  things 
that  are  true,  things  that  are  honest,  things  that 
are  just,  things  that  are  pure,  and  made  to  think 
on  these  things  that  are  the  flower  and  fruit  of 
human  freedom. 

To  teach  '^Crossing  the  Bar''  in  a  manner  to  touch. 
the  inner  life  of  the  pupil  is  not  to  chop  it  up  into 
preparation,  presentation  and  application  and  the 
rest,  but  to  inspire  the  pupil  with  the  faith,  hope 
and  love  of  the  production.  The  pupil  must  real- 
ize that  the  star,  bar,  sea,  twilight,  bell,  are  sym- 
bols  of  a  higher  life  that  fill  and  thrill  the  soul. 

The  moral  life  is  not  the  full  and  complete  life, 
but  it  is  the  necessary  approach  to  the  religious 


128  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

life.  According  to  Dr.  Edward  Caird;  man  by  the 
very  constitution  of  his  mind  has  three  ways  of 
thinking  open  to  him.  He  can  look  outwards  upon 
the  world  around  him;  he  can  look  inwards  upon 
Constitution  ^he  Self  withiu  him;  he  can  look  upwards 
^^^°^  to  the  God  above  him,  to  the  Being  who 
unites  the  outward  and  inward  worlds  and  who 
manifests  Himself  in  both.  The  child  spontaneously 
throws  his  mind  into  the  outer  world  and  exercises 
his  senses;  he  then  examines  the  inner  self  and 
develops  the  reason;  and  finally  he  synthesizes  the 
inner  and  outer  through  a  faith  in  a  Divine  Unity. 
The  intellectual  life  should  grow  into  the  moral 
life  and  the  moral  life  should  find  its  fruition  in  the 
religious  consciousness. 

Our  conscious  life  is  made  up  of  three  ideas, 
the  idea  of  the  self,  the  idea  of  the  not-self  and  the 
idea  of  the  unity  which  is  presupposed  in  the  dif- 
Three  fcrcncc   of   the   self   and   the   not-self   or 

Life  Ideas      ^j^^   j^gg^   ^f   Qq^^     rjr^^   objcct   aud   the 

subject  are  merged  into  an  absolute  principle  of 
unity  which  binds  all  thinking  beings  and  all  ob- 
jects of  thought  into  one  organic  system  of  knowl- 
edge. The  idea  of  God  is  the  ultimate  principle  of 
our  life  and  ''Every  rational  being  as  such  is  a 
religious  being."  Caird  teaches  that  the  germ  of 
the  idea  of  God  as  the  ultimate  unity  of  being  and 
knowing,  subject  and  object,  must  some  way  be 
present  in  every  rational  consciousness,  for  such  a 
consciousness  necessarily  involves  the  idea  of  the 
self  and  the  not-self,  the  ego  and  the  world,  as 


THE  ETHICAL  129 

distinct,  yet  in  relation,  that  is,  as  opposed  within 
a  unity.  The  clear  reflective  consciousness  of  the 
object  without,  of  the  subject  within,  and  of  God 
as  the  absolute  reality  which  is  beyond  and  beneath 
both — as  one  complete  consciousness  in  which  each 
of  these  terms  is  clearly  distinguished  and  definitely 
related  to  the  others — is,  in  the  nature  of  the  case, 
a  late  acquisition  of  man's  spirit,  and  one  that 
comes  to  him  only  as  a  result  of  a  long  process  of 
development.     In  religion,  Caird  further  says: 

**Man  beholds  his  own  existence  in  a  transfigured  reflection,  in 
which  all  the  divisions,  all  the  crude  hghts  and  shadows  of  the 
world,  are  softened  into  eternal  peace  under  the  beams  of  a  spiritual 
sun.  It  is  in  this  native  land  of  the  spirit  that  the  waters  of 
oblivion  flow;  for  here  the  darkness  of  life  becomes  a  transparent 
dream-image,  through  which  the  light  of  eternity  shines  in  upon  us." 


THE    TEACHING    PROCESS 

THE    GROWTH   PROCESS 

X. 

THE    MOVEMENT 

Teaching  is  a  process  of  unfolding  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  pupil  and  causes  him  to  think,  to  study, 
to  learn  and  to  unify  himself  with  the  objective 
world.  It  is  a  spiritual  movement  below  the  ma- 
terial, a  mental  process  beneath  the  physical,  a 
soul   activity   underlying  the   mechanical 

Teaching  rp         i.-  •  r  i 

means,  leaching  is  a  process  of  knowing 
the  object  by  bringing  it  into  unity  with  the  subject, 
and  knowing  the  subject  by  causing  it  to  be  realized 
in  the  object.  It  fuses  the  mind  of  the  pupil  with 
the  mind  of  the  teacher  through  the  thought  of  the 
lesson.    Emerson  in  the  ''Spiritual  Laws"  affirms: 

"There  is  no  teaching  imtil  the  pupil  is  brought  into  the  same 
state  in  which  you  are;  a  transfusion  takes  place,  he  is  you  and 
you  are  he;   then  there  is  teaching." 

Mind  Movement. — The  movement  of  the  mind 
in  teaching  is  vitally  related  to  the  movement  of 
the  mind  in  learning.  Whatever  may  be  the  thought, 
feeling,  volition  and  upward  tendency  of  life  in  the 
teacher  will  become  transfused  into  the  life  of  the 
pupil  in  and  through  the  process  of  teaching.  The 
receptive  nature  of  the  pupil  takes  on  to  itself, 
130 


THE  MOVEMENT  131 

consciously  or  unconsciously,  the  intellectual,  social, 
sesthetical  and  moral  status  of  the  teacher.  Teaching 
is  an  organic  process  of  unifying  mind  internal  in 
teacher  and  in  pupil,  with  mind  external  The  Mind 
in  the  lesson  studied.  Before  the  pupil  Learning 
can  obtain  any  knowledge  or  experience  the  same 
must  be  a  living  principle  in  the  soul  of  the  teacher. 
If  the  teacher  is  to  cause  the  pupil  to  think  the 
form,  size,  and  beauty  of  the  human  eye,  he  must 
first  think  these  relations  himself,  before  they  can 
be  transmuted  into  the  mind  and  life  of  the  pupil. 
The  movement  in  the  pupil's  mind  harmonizes  with 
the  mind  of  the  teacher  and  takes  on  to  itself  such 
emotional  coloring,  thought-relations  and  volitional 
tendencies  as  are  found  in  the  life  of  the  teacher. 
The  teacher  transplants  into  the  life  of  the  pupil 
his  own  cultured  self,  builds  into  the  soul  of  the 
pupil  a  perfect  thought  structure  and  thereby 
inspires  him  to  realize  the  highest  destiny  of  his 
being.  No  one  can  arouse  what  is  best,  truest  and 
noblest  in  human  nature  who  has  not  a  deep,  full, 
rich  emotional  temperament  and  a  well-rounded 
life.  The  artistic  teacher  has  the  ability 
to  build  into  the  mind  of  the  pupil  a  Artistic 
mental  structure  organically  related  to 
the  thought  and  spirit  of  the  world.  He  is  charged 
with  personal  magnetism,  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  his  profession  and  has  the  ability  to  electrify 
the  pupil  and  to  disturb  his  mental  equilibrium 
as  the  magnet  attracts  and  disturbs  substances 
within  the   magnetic   field. 


132  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  movement  in  teaching  differs  from  the  move- 
ment of  mind  in  learning,  yet  at  the  same  time 
the  two  processes  fuse  and  intermingle.  While  the 
pupil  is  thinking  the  thought  of  the  lesson  the  teacher 
is  thinking  the  pupil's  process  of  thinking.  The 
pupil's  mind  is  directed  toward  the  lesson,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  teacher's  mind  is  fixed  upon 

the  peculiar  activity  through  which  the 
And  pupil's    mind    must    pass    to    gain    the 

knowledge  desired.  Within  the  inner 
chamber  of  the  soul  of  the  pupil  the  teacher  watches 
the  mystic  movements  of  the  spiritual  forces  gather- 
ing in  new  knowledge  and  growing  and  developing 
in  and  through  spirit  objective  to  itself.  The  true 
teacher  understands  not  only  this  subtle  movement 
of  the  mind  of  the  child,  but  also  the  logical  order 
of  knowledge  to  be  learned.  By  means  of  questions, 
directions  and  illustrations,  and  concrete  material 
he  has  the  happy  faculty  of  uniting  the  child  with 
the  subject  taught  in  the  bond  of  intellectual  life, 
growth  and  development. 

The  Psychology  of  Subjects.  —  The  psychology 
that  the  teacher  needs  is  not  child  psychology, 
genetic  psychology,  physiological  psychology,  ex- 
perimental psychology,  abnormal  psychology,  race 
psychology  and  animal  psychology,  but  primarily 
the  psychology  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught.  By 
Professional  nicans  of  acadcmic  knowledge  the  teacher 
Study  understands   subjects,   but   by   means   of 

professional   knowledge   he   gains   ability  to   teach 
them.     The  professional  study  of  a  subject  resolves 


THE  MOVEMENT  133 

it  into  the  mental  processes  constituting  it  and 
explains  the  method  of  presenting  these  ideas 
and  thoughts  to  the  growing  mind.  Profession- 
alism means  such  a  study  of  a  subject  that  will 
clearly  indicate  the  process  by  which  the  mind 
creates  it  and  by  which  the  mind  learns  the  facts 
created  and  analyzed. 

To  be  able  to  teach  geography  the  teacher  must 
know  not  only  the  subject  as  such,  but  must  have 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  organizing  principle 
of  the  subject.  He  must  by  careful  analysis  and 
synthesis  know  the  mental  activities  to  be  stimu- 
lated in  teaching  the  subject  and  be  familiar  with 
the  unitary  principle  around  which  the  subject  is 
organized.  Before  the  teacher  engages  in  the  actual 
concrete  process  of  teaching  he  must  have  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  psychology  of  geography,  the  psy- 
chology of  reading,  the  psychology  of  history  and 
the  psychology  of  all  other  subjects  he  proposes  to 
teach.  To  be  able  to  resolve  each  branch  of  study 
into  its  mental  processes  is  the  funda- 
mental  basis  for  scientific  teaching.     The        Processes 

,     ,  ....  /.  1     .  T  1  Of  Subjects 

mental  activities  found  in  reading,  the 
mind's  way  of  knowing  and  thinking  the  printed 
page,  the  faculties  stimulated  in  the  process,  these 
and  these  alone  are  the  absolute  fundamental 
principles  necessary  in  the  correct  teaching  of 
reading.  The  psychology  of  a  subject  is  not  some- 
thing external  to  it;  it  is  nothing  more  than  the 
mental  acts  which  the  mind  takes  in  grasping  it; 
it   involves   the   thinking    activity   in   learning   it. 


134  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  objective  method  which  creates  the  subject  is 
not  invented  and  then  applied  to  the  subject,  but 
is  discovered  in  and  through  a  knowledge  of  the 
subject  itself.     This  professional  study  of  a  subject 

involves  a  comprehension  of  the  organiz- 
organizing      ing  principle  in  the  subject,  a  thorough 

knowledge  of  the  central  factor  of  mental 
life  and  a  delicate  adjustment  of  the  law  in  the 
mind  to  the  fact  in  the  thing.  In  teaching  botany- 
it  is  necessary  to  see  the  relations  in  plant  life  that 
have  corresponding  relations  in  mind  activity,  and 
to  understand  how  the  mind  grows  in  tracing  the 
thought  in  the  vegetable  world.  The  psychology 
of  the  subject  states  the  mental  laws  creating  the 
subject  and  the  mind  processes  which  the  subject 
stimulates  and  nourishes.  It  traces  out  the  con- 
crete process  of  thinking  a  subject  and  analyzes  the 
processes  by  which  the  mind  constructs  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  a  method  of  exploring  the  innermost 
constitution  of  a  subject  and  can  be  attained  by 
thinking  the  mind  to  be  taught  into  unity  of  the 
subject  by  which  it  is  taught  to  the  end  of  growth. 
Such  a  knowledge  of  a  subject  gives  new  signifi- 
cance of  it,  and  creates  within  the  teacher  an  inspira- 
tion and  a  new  insight  into  the  teaching  process. 
Educational  Values. — A  study  of  the  psychol- 
The  ^Sy    of    subjects     logically    leads    to    a 

Greatest        dlscusslou    of    their  relative    educational 

Educational 

Value  values.     That    subject   has    the   greatest 

educational  value  which  aids  the  pupil  in  grasping 
the  widest  range  of  thought  and  which  most  easily 


THE  MOVEMENT  135 

and  completely  helps  him  realize  his  true  self. 
While  all  subjects  have  a  knowledge  value,  a 
disciplinary  value,  a  practical  value  and  a  cultural 
value,  ''That  branch  of  study  which  arouses  most 
fully  the  activity  of  the  student  is  the  one  that  is 
most  educative  to  him/'  Knowledge  is  a  process 
of  gaining  new  facts,  ideas,  thoughts,  truths,  prin- 
ciples and  laws.  Discipline  is  the  increased  mind 
capacity  resulting  from  knowledge  and  represents 
the  added  increment  of  mind  power  due  to  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  The  practical  and 
cultural  values  may  be  easily  harmonized,  for 
whatever  develops  the  human  soul  furthers  life's 
interest. 

To  understand  the  educational  value  of  a  subject 
requires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  organizing 
principle  which  creates  the  subject  and  which 
develops  it  into  its  divisions  and  sub-divisions. 
There  is  a  certain  mind  activity  which  constitutes 
subject-matter  and  which  stimulates  and  nourishes 
to  growth  in  proportion  to  the  fundamental  thought 
embodied.  To  get  an  idea  of  the  educational  value 
of  reading,  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  other  sub- 
jects it  is  necessary  to  resolve  them  into  the  mind 
processes  which  they  develop  and  enlarge.  Mind 

The  artistic  teacher  adjusts  the  mind  ^^^es^ 
processes  in  the  subjects  to  corresponding  mind 
activities  in  the  learner  and  that  subject  has  the 
greatest  educational  value  which  assists  the  mind 
in  the  most  natural  way  to  realize  its  ideal  and 
essential  nature. 


136  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

It  is  time  wasted  to  discuss  the  relative  educa- 
tional value  of  grammar  and  arithmetic  or  history 
and  geography  for  the  comparative  worth  of  each 
„  ,  .  must  be  estimated  in  terms  of  spiritual 

Relative  ■     r       i  x% 

Educational  freedom  of  the  pupil.  One  subject  de- 
velops one  mind  capacity  and  another 
enlarges  the  life  in  another  direction,  but  both  are 
essential  to  the  evolution  of  the  self.  It  is  possible 
that  one  individual  may  realize  his  highest  ideal 
through  literature  and  another  through  science  and 
the  different  branches  of  study  are  necessary  for 
a  well-rounded  and  full-orbed  life. 

The  Growth  Movement. — The  movement  of  the 
mind  in  teaching  and  learning  is  a  growth  process 
which  merges  gradually  into  a  thought  process  and 
finally  ends  in  a  true  life  process.  Dr.  Arnold 
Tompkins  explains  this  process  by  saying: 

"The  teacher  must  think  the  mind  that  is  taught  into  unity 
with  the  subject  by  which  it  is  taught;  or,  the  subject  to  be  taught 
into  unity  with  the  mind  to  which  it  is  taught. " 

This  movement  strengthens  the  pupiFs  intel- 
lectual capacity,  stimulates  the  social,  sesthetical 
and  ethical  nature  and  fills  the  whole  being  with 
Function  of  upward  teudencics  and  aspirations  in 
The  Teacher  jjf^^  TYiis  growth  proccss  is  most  beau- 
tifully illustrated  in  studying  the  different  move- 
ments of  mind  in  teaching  and  reciting  a  reading 
lesson. 

First  Movement  in  Reading. — That  movement 
which  prepares  the  child   to  read   is   constructive 


THE  MOVEMENT  137 

and  reconstructive  rather  than  interpretative.  This 
movement  does  not  harmonize  with  the  alphabetic, 
phonic,  phonetic,  Pollard,  Ward,  motor,  sentence, 
group  nor  object  method,  but  uses  that  which 
is  closest  to  the  child's  life  and  which  I  call  the 
social  thought  method. 

The  means  used  in  this  method  are  plants,  animals, 
fruit,  flowers,  a  bird's  nest,  science  in  general, 
pictures,  stories  and  myths.  The  mental  steps  in 
reading  are:  First,  Thinking;  second. 
Talking;  third.  Writing;  fourth,  Reading. 
The  child  is  made  to  think  through  interest  in 
the  external  stimulus.  By  means  of  his  social 
surroundings  he  is  led  to  talk  freely.  Through 
interest  in  the  means  presented  and  through  the 
power  of  imitation,  he  pours  out  his  energy  in 
his  attempt  to  write.  He  reads  the  sentences 
filled  with  the  warmth  of  his  own  thought  as 
spontaneously  and  beautifully  as  he  thinks  them 
or  talks  them. 

In  the  first  preparatory  stage  of  reading  the 
child  goes  from  interesting  thought  to  outward 
form.  His  thinking  and  talking  are  gradually 
merged  into  writing  and  reading.  The  Thought 
following  recitation  is  based  upon  an  To  Form 
apple  by  pupils  who  have  just  entered  school: 
The  apple.  The  apple  is  green.  The  apple  is  red. 
The  apple  has  a  stem.  The  apple  has  seed.  The 
apple  is  round.  The  apple  has  a  core.  The  apple 
is  hard.  The  apple  has  a  skin.  By  thinking  the 
apple,    the    child    externalizes    his    thoughts    and 


138  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

creates  oral  sentences.  Through  imitation  and 
interest  the  child  struggles  to  write  these  and  lastly 
reads  his  own  thoughts  embodied  in  his  own 
language  as  naturally  as  he  talks  them. 

A  lesson  on  a  bird's  nest:  A  nest.  The  nest  has 
a  cord.  The  nest  has  hay.  The  nest  has  lace.  The 
nest  has  mud.  The  nest  has  straw.  The  nest  is 
Interest  and  fouud.  The  ncst  has  weeds.  The  straw 
Imitation  jg  ^^^^  r^^ie  ucst  has  cloth.  These  ten 
sentences  represent  ten  thoughts  of  ten  different 
pupils.  While  the  interest  is  at  the  highest  pitch 
the  teacher  rushes  to  the  board  and  writes  the 
child's  thoughts.  In  the  intensity  of  his  interest 
and  through  the  power  of  imitation  the  pupils  copy 
these  forms  (sentences)  and  read  them  out  of  the 
fulness  of  their  own  minds.  The  preliminary 
process  in  reading  is  thinking  thought,  creating 
thought  and  expressing  thought.  The  move- 
ment of  the  mind  in  beginning  to  read  is  from 
content  to  form.  After  the  child  thinks,  talks  and 
writes  he  is  naturally  and  easily  led  to  read  his 
own  language. 

The  first  movement  in  reading  gives  the  child 
the  language  habit,  assists  him  in  translating  his 
ideas  into  sensible  forms  and  drills  him  in  the 
power  of  conversation  and  in  muscular 
Language  codrdiuatiou  in  writing  and  paves  the  way 
to  the  real  reading  act.  These  prelimi- 
nary lessons  should  open  the  child's  mind  to  the 
many  objects  of  interest  and  gives  him  fluency  of 
speech.     It  takes  about  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the 


THE  MOVEMENT  139 

child^s  energy  to  write  the  sentences  which  the  other 
fifteen  per  cent  expresses  so  easily.  It  is  pedagog- 
ically  wrong  to  begin  with  the  form,  for  the  initial 
stage  in  reading  must  necessarily  be  the  child's 
own  thought.     William  James  makes: 

"Every  acquired  reaction  a  complication  grafted  on  a  native 
reaction,  or  a  substitute  for  a  native  reaction." 

The  native  reaction  is  the  child's  own  interesting 
thought  and  the  acquired  reaction  is  the  formal 
sentence  uninteresting  in  itself,  but  intensely  valu- 
able when  it  contains  his  own  thought. 

In  a  recitation  in  Dr.  John  Dewey's  Experimental 
School,  the  children  built  a  doll  house  consisting 
of  two  rooms,  three  windows,  and  two  doors.  It 
was  built  of  brick  and  was  attractive  Dr.  Dewey's 
and  inspiring.     The  social  nature  of  the  ^^^°°^ 

child,  coming  in  contact  with  playmates  and  teacher, 
bursts  forth  into  language  through  the  power  of 
intrinsic  thought. 

The  child  thinks  about  the  house,  talks  to  his 
associates,  and  by  energy  of  mind  gushingly  writes 
his  thoughts  on  the  black-board.  Lastly,  he  reads 
his  own  composition  in  a  most  interesting  and 
inspiring  manner. 

The  child  sees  a  squirrel  in  a  cage,  a  bird  in  a 
tree,  a  fish  in  the  water,  an  animal  in  a  museum 
and  is  led  through  the  intensity  of  his  The  child's 
thought  to  express  himself  in  language.  Language 
He  first  reads  his  own  language,  and  is  gradually 
led    to    read    and    appreciate    the    composition    of 


140  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

others.  There  should  be  from  thirty  to  fifty  lessons 
based  upon  the  child's  own  language  before  he 
attempts  to  read  and  interpret  the  language  of 
some  one  else. 

Second  Movement  in  Reading. — The  second  stage 
or  movement  in  reading  is  the  interpretation 
of  the  thought  found  in  the  language  written  by 
some  one  else.  The  mental  movement  is  from  some 
concrete  idea,  through  form  to  thought.  This 
movement  is  the  reverse  of  the  first  process.  After 
a  few  simple  lessons  of  this  nature,  suppose  the 
child  makes  a  study  of — 

"THE  OWL. 

"The  owl  sat  in  a  hollow  tree, 

And  cried  the  whole  day  through, 
'I  can  not  see,  the  sun  blinds  me. 

Ah!  what  am  I  to  do?' 

"When  night  was  dark  the  owl  looked  out, 

And  thought  he'd  leave  his  house. 
For  'light,'  said  he,  *has  come  to  me, 

I'll  go  and  catch  a  mouse. ' 

"The  mouse  he  caught  and  then  he  cried, 

*What  next  am  I  to  do? 
The  woods  shall  ring,  I'll  sit  and  sing, 

Too  whit!  Too  whit!!  Too  whoo!!!'  " 

Before  the  pupil  reads  this  lesson,  he  must  be 

made  familiar  with  its  content.     By  means  of  a 

mounted  owl  the  child  becomes  intensely 

interested    in    this    lesson.      The    owl    is 

examined,  and   the    following   points   noted:     The 

eyes,  claws,  wings  and  bill.     The  child's  attention  is 


THE  MOVEMENT  141 

called  to  the  hollow  tree,  the  sun,  night,  his 
house,  light,  mouse,  woods,  'Hoo  whit"  and  'Hoo 
whoo. "  Every  idea  in  the  poem  should  be  pre- 
sented to  the  pupil  in  a  concrete  manner.  After 
he  has  become  interested  in  the  content,  thought 
or  meaning  in  a  general  way,  he  is  ready  to  read. 
Having  become  interested  in  the  study  of  the 
owl,  the  pupil  now  reads  the  poem  and  inter- 
prets the  meaning  in  a  happy,  interesting  and 
joyous  manner. 

Third  Movement  in  Reading.  —  After  the  pupil 
has  had  about  fifty  lessons  in  prose  and  poetry 
based  upon  concrete  life,  he  is  ready  to  take  the 
third  step  in  reading.  The  mental  move-  Form  to 
ment  is  now  to  interpret  through  the  ck)ntent 
form  the  abstract  ideas  of  the  production.  The 
mind  passes  through  the  realm  of  the  concrete  into 
that  of  abstract  thought.  The  poem  or  prose 
production  must  be  read  by  imaging  the  meaning 
back  of  the  word.  The  sentence,  the  paragraph, 
the  verse,  and  the  stanza  should  be  read  and  inter- 
preted from  the  abstract  standpoint. 

Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  in  his  Literary  Interpreta- 
tions gives  such  a  fine  analysis  of  this  third  move- 
ment in  reading  that  I  quote  and  give  in  substance 
his  interpretation  of  the  three  types  of  poems. 
In  his  first  type  there  is  a  constant  stress,  or  tension, 
between  two  opposing  forces.  This  tension  is  the 
inner  heart  of  the  poem,  and  gives  the  key  to  its 
interpretation.  Perhaps  the  best  example  of  this 
type  of  poems  is  Longfellow^s — 


142  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

"THE  RAINY  DAY. 
"The  day  is  cold,  and  dark,  and  dreary; 
It  rains,  and  the  wind  is  never  weary; 

The  vine  still  clings  to  the  mouldering  wall, 

But  at  every  gust  the  dead  leaves  fall, 
And  the  day  is  dark  and  dreary. 

"  My  life  is  cold,  and  dark,  and  dreary; 

It  rains,  and  the  wind  is  never  weary; 

My  thoughts  still  cling  to  the  mouldering  Past, 
But  the  hopes  of  youth  fall  thick  in  the  blast, 

And  the  days  are  dark  and  dreary. 

"Be  still,  sad  heart!  and  cease  repining; 
Behind  the  clouds  is  the  sun  still  shining; 

Thy  fate  is  the  common  fate  of  all. 

Into  each  Hfe  some  rain  must  fall. 
Some  days  must  be  dark  and  dreary. " 

In  this  poem  there  is  a  struggle  between  two 
phases  of  life,  sadness  and  cheerfulness.  The 
polarity  found  in  this  poem  is  a  philosophical 
principle  which  reaches  deep  down  into  the  struc- 
ture of  the  universe.  We  are  taught  that  the  world 
itself  is  nothing  more  than  an  energy  struggling 
between  potentiality  and  actuality.  In  the  third 
World*  movement  in  reading  the  pupil  is  ushered 

Dualism  jj^^^  ^j^^  icalm  of  subjcctivity.  He  is 
given  an  insight  into  the  structure  of  mind  itself. 
The  life  principle,  the  imagery,  the  rhyme,  the 
rhythm  and  the  figures  of  speech  are  all  created  by 
a  struggle  between  two  opposing  forces.  The  poem 
portrays  lifers  struggles  and  awakens  within  the 
reader  the  consciousness  of  its  own  freedom.  Its 
function  and  purpose  is  to  liberate  the  individual 
from  his  bondage. 


THE  MOVEMENT  143 

The  polarity  in  a  poem  is  the  life  principle  which 
creates  it.  In  ''The  Psalm  of  Life,"  it  is  success 
and  failure;  ''The  Two  Voices,"  life  and  death; 
"Day  is  Done,"  rest  and  care;  "Reaper  Poetical 
and  Flowers,"  hfe  and  death;  "Light  of  ^°^*"^^ 
Stars,"  pain  and  strength;  "Hymn  to  Night," 
care  and  repose;  "Footsteps  of  Angels,"  sadness 
and  cheerfulness;  "Flowers,"  death  and  resurrec- 
tion; "Goblet  of  Life,"  bitterness  and  strength; 
"The  Bridge,"  sadness  and  cheerfulness;  "Court- 
ship of  Miles  Standish,"  duty  and  desire;  "To  the 
Daisy,"  joy  and  sorrow;  "The  Merchant  of  Venice," 
love  and  hate. 

Denton  J.  Snider  has  shown  that  Homer's  "Iliad" 
consists  of  a  series  of  dualisms  and  reconciliations. 
The  genetic  principle  is  a  conflict  or  scission  which 
ends  in  a  harmony.  The  first  movement  Homer's 
in  the  Iliad  is  a  struggle  between  the  "n^ad" 
Orient,  represented  by  the  Trojans,  and  the  Occi- 
dent, by  the  Greeks.  There  is  also  a  scission  between 
the  human  and  the  divine,  between  the  lower  and 
the  upper  world  and  between  the  gods  and  men. 
Within  the  Greek  camp  there  is  a  scission  between 
Agamemnon  and  Achilles,  and  among  the  Trojans, 
between  Paris  and  Hector.  In  the  upper  world 
there  is  a  scission  between  Zeus  and  the  lower 
gods,  between  his  infinite  and  finite  power  and 
among  the  inferior  gods  between  Venus,  Mars  and 
Apollo,  representing  the  Trojan  partisans,  and 
Juno,  Minerva  and  Neptune  representing  the 
Greeks.     These  dualisms  form  the  creative  energy 


144  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  the  Epic.  They  are  re-echoed  in  the  inner  heart- 
beat of  the  universe.  In  literature,  as  in  the  world 
each  struggle  is  reconciled  and  harmonized  into  a 
higher  form  of  life.  Each  literary  heart-beat  indi- 
cates a  higher  growth  in  life  and  a  further  advance 
in  human  freedom.  The  world,  the  poem  and  life 
itself  consist  of  a  series  of  struggles  between  what 
is  and  what  ought  to  be. 

Second  The  second  type  of  poems  is  an  illustra- 

"^^^  tion  of  the  true  nature  of  the  teaching 

process.  In  these  the  movement  is  indicated  in 
the  following  literary  quotations: 

"  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold  a  rainbow  in  the  sky. " 

— ^Wordsworth. 
"That  even  in  savage  bosoms  there  are  longings,  yearnings, 
strivings  for  the  good  they  comprehend  not." 

— Longfellow. 
"The  thing  we  long  for,  that  we  are." 


-Lowell. 

id  was  not,  comforts  me.  *' 
— Bi 
"  Higher  still  and  higher. ' 


What  I  aspired  to  be  and  was  not,  comforts  me." 

— Browning. 


— Shelley. 

'  These  gems  represent  the  true  upward  life  move- 
ment. The  poet  tells  us  that  all  animal  and  vege- 
table life  is  ''upward  turning."  One  of  the  best 
poems  to  illustrate  this  upward  movement  of 
human  life  and  thought,  is  Bryant^s — 

"TO  A  WATERFOWL. 

"Whither,  amidst  falling  dew, 

While  glow  the  heavens  with  the  last  steps  of  day, 
Far,  through  their  rosy  depths  dost  thou  pursue 
Thy  solitary  way? 


THE  xMOVEMENT  145 

"  Vainly  the  fowler's  eye 

Might  mark  the  distant  flight  to  do  thee  wrong, 
As,  darkly  painted  on  the  crimson  sky, 
l^hy  figure  floats  along. 

**Seek'st  thou  the  plashy  brink 

Of  weedy  lake  or  marge  of  river  wide 
Or  where  the  rocking  billows  rise  and  sink 
On  the  chafed  ocean  side? 

"'There  is  a  Power  whose  care 

Teaches  thy  way  along  that  pathless  coast, — 
The  desert  and  illimitable  air, — 
Lone  wandering,  but  not  lost. 

"All  day  thy  wings  have  fanned, 

At  that  far  height,  the  cold,  thin  atmosphere, 
Yet  stoop  not,  weary,  to  the  welcome  land, 
Though  the  dark  night  is  near. 

"And  soon  thy  toil  shall  end; 

Soon  shalt  thou  find  a  summer  home,  and  rest 
And  scream  among  thy  fellows;   reeds  shall  bend 
Soon  o'  er  thy  sheltered  nest. 

"Thou'rt  gone,  the  abyss  of  heaven 

Hath  swallowed  up  thy  form;  yet,  on  my  heart 
Deeply  hath  sunk  the  lesson  thou  hast  given, 
And  shall  not  soon  depart. 

"  He  who,  from  zone  to  zone, 

Guides  through  the  boundless  sky  thy  certain  flight 
In  the  long  way  I  must  tread  alone 
Will  lead  my  steps  aright. " 

The  mental  movement  in  this  poem  is  onward 
and  upward,  following  the  physical  movement  of 
the  Waterfowl.  In  the  interpretation  of  a  poem 
the  mind  first  searches  out  the  individual  or  object 
described  in  the  poem,  and  secondly,  conceives  the 
universal,  ideal  meaning  taught  in  the  production. 
10 


146  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Individual      ^^^  purpose  of  a  poem  is  to  teach  some 
And  universal,   fundamental   principle   of   life, 

Universal  _  x  x  / 

through  the  medium  of  some  individual 
object.  The  poetic  process  is  that  movement  of 
mind  which  universalizes  some  individual  thing. 
The  problem  in  the  interpretation  of  a  poem,  is  to 
analyze  clearly  the  individual  and  note  the  dis- 
tinctions of  the  fundamental  ideas  embodied  in  the 
universal  truth.  The  following  analysis  of  this 
poem  will  indicate  a  method  of  interpreting  many 
literary  selections. 

THE  INDIVIDUAL.  THE  UNIVERSAL. 

1.  The  waterfowl.  1.  Faith  and   Divine   Provi- 

2.  The  solitary  way.  dence. 

3.  The  fowler's  eye.  2.  The    soul    arising    above 

4.  From  zone  to  zone.  disappointments. 

5.  The  illimitable  air.  3.  The  soul  rallying  through 

6.  The   bird   has   no   doubts      faith. 

nor  fears.  4.  No  visible  guiding  power. 

7.  The   waterfowl    has    free-  5.  A  lack  of  faith. 

dom.  6.  Bryant    has    doubts    and 

8.  The  waterfowl  realizes  its      fears. 

freedom.  7.  Bryant  is  in  bondage. 

8.  Bryant     rejoices     in     the 
water-fowl's  freedom. 

Such  a  study  is  not  grammatical,  rhetorical, 
philological,  nor  a  literary  and  critical  analysis  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  It  is  an  attempt 
to  enter  Bryant's  '^workshop  and  follow  the  genera- 
tive thought  as  it  bursts  into  reality  and  thrills 
and  throbs  into  harmonious  utterance.'' 

The  third  type  of  poems  represent  the  downward 
movement  of  life  and  thought.     It  pictures  human 


i 


THE  MOVEMENT  147 

life  in  bondage  to  grief,  despair  and  de-  Third 

spondency.     This  type  leads  us  into  the  "^^^ 

dismal  paths  of  life  and  illustrates  the  bewailing  and 
bemoaning  experiences  of  human  life.  It  portrays 
that  gloomy  mood  of  the  soul  in  ^^The  Slough  of 
Despond."  It  is  a  saddened  picture  in  which  '^My 
heart  is  bewailing  and  tolling  within  me  like  a 
funeral  bell."  Perhaps  the  best  representation  of 
this  type  in  the  English  language  is  Tennyson's — 

"BREAK,  BREAK,  BREAK. 

"Break,  break,  break. 

On  thy  cold  gray  stones,  O  Sea! 
And  I  would  that  my  tongue  could  utter 

The  thoughts  that  arise  in  me. 

"O  well  for  the  fisherman's  boy, 

That  he  shouts  with  his  sister  at  play  I 

O  well  for  the  sailor  lad, 

That  he  sings  in  his  boat  on  the  bay  I 

"And  the  stately  ships  go  on 

To  their  haven  under  the  hill; 
But  O  for  the  touch  of  a  vanish'd  hand, 

And  the  soimd  of  a  voice  that  is  still  1 

"Break,  break,  break. 

At  the  foot  of  thy  crags,  O  Seal 
But  the  tender  grace  of  a  day  that  is  dead 

Will  never  come  back  to  me. " 

In  this  type  of  poems  of  which  Longfellow's 
^^ Afternoon  in  February"  is  another  example,  the 
soul  of  the  reader  is  plunged  into  the  depths  of 
grief,  sorrow,  and  sadness.  A  poem  usually  liber- 
ates the  soul  from  some  form  of  bondage,  but  in 
this   selection   each  stanza  increases  the   intensity 


148  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  the  sadness.  At  each  thought  and  stroke  of  the 
poet,  the  bondage  is  idealized,  strengthened  and 
intensified.  As  the  poet  gradually  enters  the 
abysmal  shades  of  grief  he  idealizes  and  universal- 
izes sadness,  which  is  an  essential  experience  of 
Process  thc  soul  iu  attaining  freedom.  The 
Of  Freedom  hujjjan  qq^\  bccomcs  frcc  by  being  stirred 
to  its  very  foundation  by  some  such  scene  as  'Hhe 
touch  of  a  vanished  hand"  or  'Hhe  sound  of  a  voice 
that  is  still/'  When  an  individual  feels  so  intensely 
he  is  on  the  royal  road  to  freedom.  To  idealize 
grief  and  sorrow,  to  play  upon  the  melancholy 
chord,  to  feel  deeply  some  sad  experience  of  life — 
these  are  true  elements  of  liberation  and  freedom. 
Tennyson  leads  us  into  the  realm  of  the  sorrowful 
by  beginning  with  *'the  cold  gray  stones"  and  the 
thoughts  that  he  can  scarcely  utter.  Then  he 
pictures  the  scenes  of  the  fisherman  and  sailor  and 
portrays  some'of  the  most  touching  images  of  human 
life,  namely,  the  'Vanished  hand"  and  the  ^Woice 
that  is  still."  To  realize  the  significance  of  this 
picture,  one  is  ushered  into  the  very  threshold  of 
death,  and  made  to  feel  the  intense  grief  of  a  still 
voice,  the  hand  cold  in  death  and  the  dead  day. 

Fourth  Movement  in  Reading. — In  the  final  men- 
tal movement  in  reading  and  literary  study,  the 
student  is  required  to  make  a  vivid  picture  of  the 

imagery  contained  in  the  selection  studied. 

The  lesson  is  read  carefully,  studied  criti- 
cally as  to  form  and  content,  reproducing  the 
imagery   first   orally  then   pictorially.      If  the  se- 


THE  MOVEMENT  149 

lection  is  short  the  pupil  portrays  the  entire  im- 
agery, but  in  a  long  literary  production  as  **  Evan- 
geline" or  *^The  Great  Stone  Face/'  each  student 
is  assigned  some  definite  picture  and  the  class 
reproduces  the  total  imagery.  By  a  close  study  of 
the  imagery  of  the  selection  in  this  manner  followed 
by  an  artistic  reproduction  of  it,  the  pupil  is  thor- 
oughly trained  in  the  appreciation  of  a  literary 
work  of  art. 

The  philosophy  of  the  method  lies  in  the  fact 
that  internal  ideas  are  objectified  and  made  sensu- 
ous in  drawings.  The  thought,  spirit  and  essence 
lying  dormant  in  the  words,  sentences,  paragraphs^ 
and  stanzas  are  externalized  in  the  particular, 
paintings.  It  is  a  process  of  estrangement  process  of 
and  removal  which  harmonizes  with  the  Estrangement 
movement,  growth  and  development  of  mind.  In 
this  process  the  mind  in  the  selection  was  first 
estranged  from  .the  author  when  the  piece  was. 
written.  The  pupil  in  rethinking  the  thoughts  and 
imagery  of  the  author,  first  pictures  them  mentally 
and  then  externalizes  them  on  paper.  After  be- 
coming absorbed  in  the  spirit  of  the  poem  or  prose 
selection,  the  pupil  struggles  with  all  his  might  to 
portray  the  imagery  beautifully  in  external  form. 

**  Lord  Ullin's  Daughter/* —  In  studying  this 
short  poem  the  first  image  would  be  a  picture  of 
the  daughter  and  lover  standing  on  the  bank  of 
the  river  waiting  for  the  ferryman.  In  the  back- 
ground is  seen  the  sky,  the  moon,  and  a  beautiful 
woodland  scene.    In  the  foreground  is  the  ferryman 


150  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

in  his  skiff  crossing  the  river.  The  next  picture 
illustrates  Lord  Ullin  and  his  train  of  men  on 
horseback  in  pursuit,  plunging  madly  through  the 
woodland.  This  scene  is  followed  by  another 
picturing  the  approaching  storm,  the  ferryman,  and 
the  daughter  and  lover  crossing  the  tempest-tossed 
river.  The  last  imagery  represents  the  denouement 
of  the  story  picturing  Lord  Ullin  standing  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  in  the  midst  of  a  storm  and  be- 
holding the  empty  boat. 

**The  Snow  Image." — To  portray  the  imagery 
of  this  beautiful  story  of  Hawthorne,  the  pupil 
first  paints  a  snow  scene,  including  a  snow  ball,  the 
home,  the  sun,  and  Violet  and  Peony  in  the  yard. 
As  the  children  are  given  permission  by  the  mother 
to  enjoy  the  snow-storm,  the  pupil  depicts  the 
following  thought:  ''Yes,  you  may  go  out  and  play 
in  the  new  snow."  In  the  development  of  this 
fascinating  story,  a  picture  of  the  home,  angel  faces, 
Violet  and  Peony,  and  The  Snow  Image  should  be 
drawn  to  illustrate — ''What  other  children  could 
have  made  any  thing  so  like  a  little  girl's  figure  out 
of  snow."  Following  the  thread  of  the  story,  it 
would  be  interesting  for  some  pupil  to  picture  the 
thought  of  Violet's  language:  "What  a  nice  play- 
mate she  will  make  for  us  all  winter."  The  Snow 
Image  should  be  drawn  in  such  an  artistic  manner 
as  to  bring  out  the  following  thought:  "That  color 
comes  from  the  golden  clouds  we  see  up  there  in  the 
sky."  Another  pretty  scene  shows  the  mother — 
''After  opening  the  door,  she  stood  an  instant  on 


THE  MOVEMENT  151 

the  threshold" — viewing  the  image,  bedecked  with 
birds,  surrounded  by  Violet  and  Peony.  The 
mother  in  utter  astonishment  exclaims:  ''It  must 
certainly  be  one  of  the  neighbors'  daughters." 
The  father  should  be  pictured  as  he  approaches  the 
image  and  says:  ''Come!  you  odd  little  thing!" 
The  final  scene  represents  The  Snow  Image  placed 
near  the  stove;  "A  good  fire  will  put  every  thing 
to  rights."  As  the  image  melts,  Violet  in  her 
excitement  and  bereavement  shouts — "There  is  all 
that  is  left  of  our  dear  little  snow-sister." 

"The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow." — The  following 
pictures  were  taken  from  actual  work  done  in  the 
class-room.  Sleepy  Hollow  is  graphically  pictured 
near  the  Hudson  river,  enlarging  into  Tappan 
Zee.  In  this  valley  is  situated  Tarrytown,  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  forest  and  a  murmuring  brook. 
The  headless  horseman  is  riding  a  vicious  animal. 
The  church  is  dismally  located  amid  the  graves 
of  the  original  pioneers.  Ichabod  Crane  is  vividly 
portrayed  in  connection  with  the  church  in  which 
he  taught  music,  the  boarding-house,  and  the 
school-house.  The  school  is  situated  near  the 
brook,  amidst  a  forest  of  birch  trees,  in  which  are 
heard  the  complaining  notes  of  the  owl  and  the 
whippoorwill.  The  rustic  Zaltus  Van  Tassel  and  his 
charming  (?)  daughter  Katrina,  are  sketched  at 
their  home  on  the  Hudson.  In  the  barn  yard  are 
seen  the  porkers,  the  fowls  and  other  evidences  of 
thrift  and  industry.  The  mighty  Brom  Bones,  the 
terror   of   the    community,    is    drawn   in    Sampson 


152  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

fashion.  A  most  vivid  picture  is  made  of  the  little 
negro  delivering  the  invitation  to  Ichabod,  to  attend 
the  dance  at  Katrina's  home.  Ichabod  uncere- 
moniously dismissed  the  children,  secured  Gun- 
powder, and  started  on  his  way  rejoicing.  A  very 
laughable  picture  of  the  dance  is  made  with  the 
pickaninnies  looking  on  in  the  background.  Dare- 
devil, the  property  of  Brom  Bones,  is  pictured  in 
contrast  to  Gunpowder.  The  last  episode  happened 
near  Major  Andre's  tree.  As  Ichabod  was  approach- 
ing the  famous  bridge,  he  was  hurled  from  his  horse. 
The  climax  of  the  story  is  shown  in  the  finding  of 
his  hat,  saddle  and  pumpkin. 

**  Hiawatha." — The  following  described  pictures 
in  colors  were  worked  out  by  a  class  in  the  Model 
School.  Hiawatha  is  painted  with  red  feathers, 
black  hair,  the  body  in  chrome  yellow,  the  lower 
extremities  clothed  in  bright  orange  and  trimmed 
in  red  fringes.  The  ancient  arrow  maker  painted 
in  a  tan  color  is  standing  at  his  wigwam.  He  is 
beautifully  bedecked  with  feathers,  face  painted, 
and  gorgeously  attired.  Old  Nokomis  dressed  in 
true  Indian  fashion,  is  standing  between  a  tree 
covered  with  green  foliage  and  a  wigwam  watching 
the  boiling  kettle.  Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
is  drawn  as  a  very  attractive  Indian  squaw  with 
rosy  cheeks  and  gala  apparel.  Hiawatha,  Minne- 
haha and  her  father  are  portrayed  ensemhle  in  such 
a  way  as  to  illustrate  the  quotation:  ''Give  me  as 
my  wife,  this  maiden. ''  As  Minnehaha  modestly 
stands    in   the    background,    Hiawatha    with    out- 


THE  MOVEMENT  153 

stretched  arms  is  pleading  fervently  to  her  father^ 
who  is  smoking  a  pipe.  Six  wigwams  are  drawn 
in  different  colors  to  represent  **  Welcome,  English- 
man!'*  Hiawatha  is  sketched  with  a  deer  thrown 
over  his  shoulder,  and  passing  through  a  beautiful 
woodland,  with  the  moon  just  appearing  at  the 
horizon.  Gaudy  colors  are  used  and  the  picture  is 
made  realistic.  After  illustrating — *^You  are  wel- 
come, Hiawatha,'^  an  attractive  picture  is  painted 
to  represent  the  homeward  journey.  These  draw- 
ings of  Hiawatha  show  the  study,  the  imagery  and 
the  artistic  skill  of  the  different  pupils.  The  method 
creates  unbounded  interest  and  gives  the  students 
true  literary  culture. 

**  Enoch  Arden." —  This  pictorial  interpretation 
of  Enoch  Arden  was  worked  out  by  pupils  of  the 
ninth  grade :  Annie  Lee  is  drawn  in  a  most  exquisite 
dress  of  blue,  trimmed  in  red  and  old  gold.  Philip's 
mill  is  located  between  two  rivers,  which  are  crossed 
by  rustic  bridges.  The  old,  dilapidated  tavern  i& 
situated  on  an  elevated  lawn  surrounded  by  a 
forest.  The  village  in  the  distance,  at  the  bend  of 
the  river  has  a  fine  location,  both  artistically  and 
commercially.  "A  lonely  island"  is  sketched  by 
one  pupil,  and  another  places  Enoch  Arden  there^ 
hailing  the  approach  of  a  ship.  A  beautiful  drawing 
is  painted,  showing  Philip  holding  a  rose,  and 
Annie  standing  near  him  with  a  downcast  look: 
**Then  first  since  Enoch's  ring  girt  her  finger,. 
Annie  fought  his  will.''  Another  scene  represents 
Annie  standing  at  the  door  and  as  Enoch  bids  her 


154  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

adieu — '^he  waved  his  hand  and  went  his  way." 
The  most  vivid  picture  is  a  representation  of 
Enoch  lying  on  his  death  bed  as  Miriam  Lane 
approaches. 

In  the  same  manner  pictorial  interpretations 
have  recently  been  made  by  pupils  of  the  Model 
School  of— ''Rip  Van  Winkle/'  ''The  Great  Stone 
Face/'  '^ Evangeline/'  "Snow  Bound/'  "Deserted 
Village/'  "Vision  of  Sir  Launfal/'  Gray's  "Elegy/' 
"Courtship  of  Miles  Standish/'  "Cotters'  Saturday 
Night"   and  "Rhyme  of  the  Ancient  Mariner." 

In  the  fourth  movement  in  reading  the  pupil  is 
required  to  read  the  selection  in  a  slow,  critical 
and  analytical  manner,  noting  the  meaning  of 
words,  grammatical  constructions,  rhetorical  ele- 
gance, the  prosody,  the  allusions,  kind  of  language 
and  lesson  taught.  After  the  selection  has  been 
Story  read  and  studied  in  a  careful  manner,  the 

"^^^^  characters  noted  and  its  relation  to  the 

laws  of  the  beautiful,  the  completed  and  continuous 
story  must  be  told  orally  first  and  then  reduced 
to  writing. 

The  entire  literary  production  is  read  and  re- 
read until  the  pupil  has  a  vivid  picture  in  his  mind 
of  the  complete  thought  embodied  in  the  selection. 
He  is  then  required  to  stand  before  the  class  and 
tell  in  story  form,  in  his  own  language,  the  entire 
thought  of  the  classic.  In  this  manner  the  pupil 
incorporates  into  his  life  the  beautiful  thoughts  of 
master  minds,  and  is  thereby  given  a  desire  to 
study  and  to  appreciate  literature. 


THE  MOVEMENT  155 

The  last  process  in  teaching  reading  is  to  picture 
in  tangible  form  the  imagery  found  in  the  production 
which  clinches  and  transmutes  the  thoughts  of  the 
classic  into  mind  substance.  In  reading  a  selection 
the  pupil  has  only  a  blurred  image  of  the  thought. 
These  images  must  be  studied,  drawn  on  pictorial 
the   black-board,   sketched   in  the  tablet  ^^""^^ 

and  finally  painted  in  water  colors.  The  scenes 
must  be  studied  from  an  artistic  point  of  view  and 
painted  and  colored  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring 
out  the  delicate  shades  of  thought  in  the  classic. 
When  these  drawings  are  completed  they  should 
be  mounted  and  placed  upon  the  wall  of  the  school- 
room for  inspection.  This  three-fold  method  in 
reading  inspires  the  teacher,  interests  the  children, 
and  creates  enthusiasm  among  the  patrons  of  the 
school. 


XI. 

THE  METHOD. 

Method  is  a  real  activity  of  a  subject  to  be  studied 

made  to  harmonize  with  an  ideal  activity  of  a  mind 

to  be  developed.    There  is  a  method  in  every  subject 

to  be  learned  and  a  method  in  every  mind 

Method  ,       ,        .  1  .  ,  11.,. 

to  be  taught  and  true  method  m  teachmg 
consists  in  exactly  adjusting  the  pupiFs  mind  to 
the  corresponding  thought  processes  in  the  objec- 
tive world.  Prof.  William  A.  Jones  originated  the 
most  fundamental  conception  of  method  known  in 
the  history  of  education;  namely, 

"The  law  in  the  mind  and  the  fact  in  the  thing  determine  the 
method. " 

The  real  problem  in  method  is  to  unify  the  thought 
in  the  thing  with  the  law  in  the  mind. 

The  Thought  in  the  Thing. — The  thought  in  the 
thing  is  the  universal  principle  of  reason  creat- 
ing and  sustaining  the  world.  It  is  the  living  spirit 
of  all  that  is,  pervades  all  forms  of  life,  produces 
all  phases  of  activity  and  determines  all  method. 
The  method  of  the  fact  in  the  thing  is  objective 
Objective  ^^^  formulatcs  subject-matter  apart  from 
Method  ^Yie  learning  mind.  There  is  a  certain  type 
of  activity  developing  the  flora  and  another  form 
creating  the  fauna  of  a  country.  Method  in  bot- 
any investigates  the  former  activity  and  method 
156 


THE  METHOD  157 

in  zoology  the  latter,  and  in  each  case  method 
is  the  peculiar  constructive  power  of  nature  which 
develops  the  multiplicity  of  forms  according  to 
certain  natural  laws.  Both  the  scientist  and  the 
philosopher  teach  that  what  is,  is  activity  and  hence 
method  is  a  type  of  activity  or  a  law  of  existence. 
A  certain  law  of  nature  creates  rocks  and  a  different 
type  of  energy  produces  Saturn's  rings.  Method 
in  mineralogy  traces  out  the  law  of  nature  in  rock 
formation,  and  method  in  astronomy  investigates 
the  subtle  forces  of  nebular  matter  resulting  in  the 
rings.  The  tides  are  learned  and  taught  by  method 
in  geography  and  the  trilobite,  by  method  in  pale- 
ontology. Method  in  the  common  branches  traces 
out  the  fundamental  activities  creating  the  various 
subjects,  explains  the  organizing  principle  of  each, 
and  shows  how  mental  life  grows  in  and  through  a 
knowledge  of  subject-matter.  The  thought  in  a 
branch  of  study  is  its  law  or  method  and  an  insight 
into  this  method  reveals  its  creative  energy,  and 
gives  the  clue  to  teach  it.  To  understand  how  to 
teach  anything  means  to  study  the  thought  as  it 
creates  the  thing. 

The  Evolution  of  Activity. — All  activity  grad- 
ually develops  into  higher  and  higher  forms  until 
it  becomes  self-active  and  self-determined.  The 
activity  of  the  geode  is  a  lower  form  than  the 
activity  of  the  sponge;  the  activity  of  the  ape  is 
higher  than  that  of  the  hare.  In  the  ascending 
scale  of  creation,  activity  is  transformed  into  self- 
activity    which    conquers    other    forms    and   trans- 


158  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

mutes  them  into  its  own  being.  There 
is  in  the  orange  tree  a  self-activity,  which 
causes  it  to  grow,  to  branch,  to  put  forth  leaves, 
to  blossom  and  to  develop  into  fruit.  The  orange 
energy  destroys  things  external  to  itself  and  ap- 
propriates them  to  build  up  its  own  tissues.  To 
understand  how  to  teach  the  orange  is  to  trace  out 
the  intelligence  found  in  its  structure  and  to  identify 
this  knowledge  with  the  orange  activity  in  the 
learning  mind. 

A  still  higher  form  of  activity  is  seen  in  the  horse 
and  lion.  They  destroy  plant  and  animal  life 
respectively  and  appropriate  and  assimilate  these 
Higher  for  the   upbuilding   of    cells   and   tissues. 

Activity  Locomotion,  feeling  and  conformity  to  a 
definite  purpose  are  added  increments  of  life  in  the 
animal  not  found  in  the  plant.  Method  in  biology, 
treating  life,  differentiates  itself  into  method  in  con- 
chology  in  teaching  '^The  Chambered  Nautilus,'^  and 
method  in  ornithology  in  studying  ''The  Robin. ^^ 

The  highest  form  of  self-activity  is  found  in  the 
human  mind.  While  the  plant  and  animal  grow 
without  plan  or  purpose,  the  human  soul  grows  by 
Self.  setting  up  ideals — then  struggling  to  at- 

Activity  ^Q^jj^  them.  Mental  activity  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  law;  law  is  another  name  for  method,  and 
method  is  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  a  subject 
is  formed.  Method  in  engineering  discusses  the 
self-activity  which  constructed  the  Brooklyn  bridge 
and  method  in  literature  gives  the  mode  of  pro- 
cedure in  teaching  ''Evangeline.''     The  teacher  of 


THE  METHOD  159 

method  must  be  able  to  distinguish  the  various 
phases  of  self-activity  and  know  how  to  reduce 
every  subject  of  study  to  its  original  creative 
principle.  This  is  the  objective  method  and  is  the 
activity  which  gives  form  to  grammar  and  history 
and  arranges  their  divisions  and  subdivisions.  The 
objective  method  in  creating  grammar  must  be 
distinguished  from  the  subjective  method  in  learn- 
ing grammar. 

The  Parts  of  Speech. — The  different  parts  of 
speech  are  treated  in  grammar  and  are  objective 
to  the  teacher  and  pupil.  The  objective  method 
traces  out  the  origin  of  a  subject  while  the  sub- 
jective method  analyzes  the  process  by  which  it  is 
taught  and  learned.  To  derive  the  parts  of  speech 
is  an  objective  process  because  it  takes  into  con- 
sideration the  genetic  principle  of  grammar. 

IDEAS  WORDS 

1.  Object Pencil Noun 

It Pronoun 

2.  Attributes  (qualities) 

a  Round Adjective. 

6  Almost Adverb. 

c  To  fall Infinitive. 

d  Falling Participle. 

3.  Connecting 

a  And Conjunction. 

6  Is Verb. 

c  On Preposition. 

4.  Any  more? 

There  is  a  method  of  thought  which  creates  the 
noun  and  a  different  shade  of  thinking  that  produces 
the  conjunction.     The  parts  of  speech   originated 


160  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

in   thought   processes   objective   to  the  pupil  who 
studies  grammar  and  may  be  illustrated  by  think- 
ing  the   lead-pencil.     The  ideas  used   in  thinking 
are  expressed  in  words  classified  according  to  their 
use   and   are  named   parts   of   speech.      The   lead- 
pencil    is    first    thought    as    an    object 
and  the  word  which  expresses  the  name 
of   that   idea   is   called   a   noun.      In  thinking  the 
lead -pencil     there     are     certain     words     (as     it) 
which  designate  objects  without  naming 
them    and    are    called    pronouns.      The 
mind  is  next  directed  to  the  attributes  or  qualities 
of  the  pencil  as  round  and  that  part  of  speech  which 
expresses  an  attribute  of  a  substance  is 
known  as  an  adjective.      The  mind  may 
think  the  lead-pencil  more  closely  and  clearly  ob- 
serve that  it  is  not  round  but  almost  round.    Almost 
is    an    attribute    of    round    which    is    an 
attribute  of  pencil.     That  part  of  speech 
which  expresses   an   attribute    of    an    attribute    is 
named    an    adverb.     In  thinking  the  lead-pencil  to 
^g  fall   or    falling,   attributes   of    action   are 

Infinite  Verb  (iiscemed  which,  clothed  in  words,  are 
called  respectively  —  infinitives  and  participles. 
Garfield   once  taught: 

"A  participle  is  the  skin  of  a  verb  stuffed  with  the  bran  of  an 
adjective. " 

In  continuing  the  thought  processes  concerning 
the  lead-pencil  it  is  considered  round  and  long. 
And   is   a    word    which   expresses   relation    merely 


THE  METHOD  161 

without    performing   any   other    function 

.  Conjunction 

of  thought  and   is   known   as   a  conjunc- 
tion.    When  we  think  the  lead-pencil  is  long  we  use 
another    connecting    idea    which    is    the    essential 
element    of    the    sentence.      The    verb    is 

Verb 

that  part  of  speech  that  asserts  an  attri- 
bute of  an  object.    The  pencil  may  also  be  thought 
in  connection  with  some  other  object  and  the  rela- 
tional activity  of  mind  is  brought  into  use  in  express- 
ing the  thought  that  the  pencil  lies  on  the  table. 
The  preposition  (on)  is  that  part  of  speech 
which    expresses    a    relation    and    which 
governs  an  object. 

Since  the  interjection  is  an  expression  of  emotion 
or  isolated  feeling,  and  not  the  result  of  thought 
it  is  not  a  part  of  speech.  It  is  not  an  element  of 
the  sentence  and,  like  the  expletive,  has 
no  grammatical  relation  with  other  words. 
Perhaps,  there  are  other  parts  of  speech  which  may 
be  ''dug  out"  of  the  lead-pencil  by  other  processes 
of  thought.  We  have  thought  out  eight  different 
ideas  in  relation  to  the  pencil  (the  infinitive  and 
participle  having  the  same  function  of  thought). 
We  think  again  and  again  to  see  if  there  Eight 

are  other  new  relations  possible  for  the  Relations 
expression  of  thought.  Since  the  human  mind  is 
not  able  to  think  a  thing  under  more  than  eight 
distinct  relations  (ten  categories  by  Aristotle) 
there  are  only  eight  parts  of  speech. 

This  is  the   objective   method  in  grammar  and 
expresses  the  genetic   principle   which   brings   the 
11 


162  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

^  science  into  existence.    This  same  thought 

The 

Genetic  powcF  dividcs  the  parts  of  speech  into 
their  divisions  and  subdivisions,  and  classi- 
fies the  subject-matter  of  grammar  according  to 
the  law  of  mental  activity.  Grammar  is  the  science 
of  the  sentence  and  the  sentence  is  the  basis  of  all 
work  in  language  lessons,  composition,  reading, 
grammar,  rhetoric,  philology  and  linguistics. 
Thoughts  are  classified  into  those  having  the  intel- 
lectual phase  prominent,  those  having  the  emotional 
phase  prominent  and  those  having  the  volitional 
phase  prominent.  The  thought  sentence  is  divided 
into  the  declarative  and  the  interrogative.  The 
feeling  sentence  is  exclamatory  and  the  willing 
sentence,  imperative. 

In   studying   the   evolution   of   a   sentence   it   is 

interesting  to  note  that  it  is  organic  not  mechanical, 

that   it   originates   in   a  sentence-germ,   a   kind   of 

psychological  fire-mist  and  that  it  grows 

Evolution  f   J  b  & 

Of  a  and   develops   accordmg   to   certam   psy- 

chological and  sociological  conditions.  The 
sentence  is  evolved  out  of  the  inner  consciousness 
of  the  mind,  differentiates  itself  into  the  parts  of 
speech  and  hence  is  not  a  mechanical  process  of 
coupling  words  together.  The  law  of  sentence 
evolution  and  growth  may  be  illustrated  as  follows: 
While  sharpening  my  pencil  I  accidentally  cut  my 
finger  and  exclaimed,  ''Ouch!  I  cut  my  finger." 
Before  the  thought  originated,  before  the  sentence 
was  expressed,  there  was  a  confused,  vague,  un- 
differentiated feeling  of    pain,  a  jelly-like   mass   of 


THE  METHOD  163 

thought  which  was  first  expressed  in  the  so-called 
interjection  (an  expression  of  feeling  and  not  of 
thought)  and  which  finally  develops  into  the  sen- 
tence. Feeling,  we  are  told  in  psychology,  is  the 
basis  of  all  conscious  life  which  develops  itself  into 
a  two-stemmed  thought,  self  and  cutting,  the  agent 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  agent  acted.  As 
thought  develops  the  sentence  branches,  divides 
and  subdivides  in  proportion  to  the  intensity  and 
breadth  of  thought.  The  diagram  is  an  X-Ray 
photograph  which  pictures  the  sentence  anatomy 
and  is  a  valuable  device,  since  it  shows  the  law  of 
growth  and  development  of  the  sentence. 

Pedagogy  of  the  Adjective. — An  intense  study 
is  now  made  of  the  adjective  to  illustrate  how  the 
fact  in  the  thing  harmonizes  with  the  law  in  the 
mind.  An  adjective  has  been  defined  as  a  word 
which  describes  an  attribute  of  an  object.  An 
attribute  is  an  energy  working  through  matter 
and  limits  and  defines  the  nature  of  a  thing.  Ad- 
jectives are  developed  in  accordance  with  the  nature 
of  attributes  and  are  usually  found  in  pairs.  If 
the  adjective  has  no  mate  it  has  either  lost  its 
original  meaning  or  its  mate  has  become  obsolete. 
The  adjective  differs  from  the  other  parts  of  speech 
in  excluding  the  antagonist;  good,  bad;  large, 
small;  asleep,  awake;  alive,  dead.  In  teaching 
the  adjective  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the 
thought  distinctions  between  the  classes  of  adjec- 
tives. Limiting  adjectives  leave  out  objects,  as 
ten  mice;  qualifying  adjectives  leave  out  attributes, 


164  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

as  white  mice;  the  limiting  adjectives  exclude  all 
mice  except  the  ten  and  the  qualifying  adjectives 
exclude  all  except  the  white.  Again  qualifying 
Thought  adjectives  individualize,  as  black  ink; 
Distinctions  pj-g^^icate  adjcctivcs  universalize,  as  ink 
IS  black.  In  the  former,  black  individualizes  the 
ink  to  one  particular  kind  and  in  the  latter,  black 
has  a  wider  sweep  of  thought  than  ink  and  is  said 
to  universalize.  It  is  the  nature  of  the  adjective  to 
increase  the  comprehension  and  to  decrease  the 
extension.  A  red  apple  has  a  greater  extension 
but  less  comprehension  than  a  sweet,  mellow,  red 
apple.  Limiting  adjectives  affect  the  extension 
while  qualifying  adjectives  not  only  express  the 
quality  but  limit  the  extension.  In  the  sentences — 
Mellow  apples  are  good. — Ripe  nuts  are  palatable. 
— the  quality  only  is  affected.  In  the  sentences — 
Good  boys  die  young. — Tall  trees  make  long  shad- 
ows.— the  extent  is  affected. 

The  nature  of  the  adjective  is  such  that  it  requires 
five  movements  of  mind  to  think  it.  First,  the  mind 
perceives  the  adjective,  good  chair,  brittle  chalk. 
Second,  the  mind  images  the  meaning  back  of  these 
words,  as  good  accomplishes  an  end,  and  brittle 
expresses  the  idea  of  friability.  In  the  third  move- 
To  Think  ment  of  the  mind,  a  comparison  and 
The  Adjective  contrast  is  made  of  the  form  of  the  two 
words,  good  and  brittle,  and  then  of  the  meaning 
by  comparing  and  contrasting  the  images  back 
of  the  word.  This  movement  of  the  mind  is 
analytical -synthetical     and    notes    likenesses    and 


THE  METHOD  165 

differences.     The  fourth  movement  in  thinking  the 
adjective    is    a    process   of    reasoning,   as    follows: 

All  good  chairs  are  comfortable, 
This  chair  is  comfortable, 
Therefore,  this  is  a  good  chair. 

All  brittle  chalk  is  friable, 
This  chalk  is  friable. 
Therefore,  this  chalk  is  brittle. 

In  thinking  the  adjective  the  mind  finally  moves 
in  a  syllogistic  process  which  is  a  form  of  thought 
in  obtaining  any  knowledge.  Lastly,  the  mind 
generalizes,  names  and  gives  a  logical  definition 
of  the  adjective  as  follows:  An  adjective  is  a  word 
which  describes  the  name  of  an  object. 

In  teaching  this  part  of  speech  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  consideration  the  thought  in  the  thing 
and  the  law  in  the  mind.  The  objective  method  is 
the  energy  producing  attributes,  the  activity  creat- 
ing adjectives  and  the  force  necessary  to  their 
classification.     The  subjective  method  is 

..  -  .,.  ,.,.  Object  and 

the    activity    of    mmd    in    thinking    the  subject 

adjective,  the  spiritual  energy  translat- 
ing it  into  the  mind  and  the  mental  force  trans- 
muting the  real  into  the  ideal.  It  makes  a  study 
of  how  the  mind  acquires  the  knowledge  of  the 
adjective,  how  the  adjective  is  changed  into  the 
self,  and  how  the  self  becomes  the  adjective. 

In  studying  and  teaching  the  adjective,  the 
pupiFs  mind  follows  the  five'  processes  of  thought 
in  learning  it,  while  the  teacher's  mind  follows  the 


166  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

pupil's  mind  in  each  process,  thinks  the  pupiFs 
mind  into  unity  with  the  adjective,  and  brings  the 
adjective  into  harmony  with  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
and  assists  him  in  making  it  a  part  of  his  thought. 
^    ,.  The    adjective    now    becomes    translated 

Teaching 

And  Learning  into  thc  pupil's  Hfc,  aff ccts  Ms  charactcr 
and  aids  in  the  evolution  of  the  individual. 
To  think  an  adjective  is  merely  to  gain  the  thought 
processes  in  it,  but  to  teach  it  is  to  transmute  the 
thought  and  spirit  into  the  mind  and  soul  of  the 
pupil,  to  the  end  of  knowledge,  character,  growth, 
development  and  spiritual  freedom.  The  pupil 
realizes  himself  in  the  adjective  and  the  adjective 
attains  its  final  purpose,  when  both  are  reconciled, 
and  harmonized  into  freedom  of  thought  and  free- 
dom of  life. 

The  Law  in  the  Mind. — It  is  difficult  to  discuss 
the  fact  in  the  thing  without  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  law  in  the  mind.  The  subjective  method 
Subjective  IS  the  activity  or  force  which  transmutes 
Method  ^Yie  ideas  and  thought  of  subject-matter 
into  the  living  energy  of  mind.  It  is  that  activity 
which  makes  the  facts  of  history,  grammar  and 
other  studies  subjective  to  the  thinking  mind. 
There  is  a  method  which  creates  the  parts  of  speech 
and  another  mental  process  which  makes  them  a 
part  of  the  mind's  constitution.  The  former  has 
been  called  the  thought  in  the  thing  and  the  latter 
the  law  in  the  mind.  These  two  modes  of  activity 
are  distinct  and  apart,  yet  resolvable  into  each 
other.     Knowledge  has  been  defined  as  an  organic 


THE  METHOD  167 

process  existing  between  subject  and  object.  All 
mental  growth  or  development  is  a  process  of 
adjusting  the  subject  to  the  mind,  of  translating 
the  subjective  into  the  objective,  of  mind  identi- 
fying itself  with  matter  and  of  the  internal  unifying 
itself  with  the  external.  This  doctrine  of  method  is 
corroborated  by  the  following  authors. 

Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  in  his  discussion  of  the  uni- 
versal law  of  teaching,  maintains  that: 

"The  universal  problem  of  method  is,  how  the  learning  mind 
identifies  itself  with  the  objective  world  to  the  end  of  growth, — 
how  the  subjective  becomes  one  with  the  objective,  in  the  process 
called  knowledge. " 

Prof.  Howard  Sandison  defines  method  as  follows: 

"A  real  activity  according  to,  and  in  harmony  with  an  ideal 
acti\'ity. " 

He  further  writes: 

"Method  is  the  fundamental  movement  of  mind  in  the  exami- 
nation of  an  object  with  reference  to  a  given  attribute  that  has  been 
exalted  and  emphasized  by  the  mind's  interests." 

Rosenkranz  in  discussing  the  logical  presup- 
position of  instruction  sets  forth  a  similar  doctrine: 

"The  subject  must  be  adapted  to  the  consciousness  of  the  pupil. 
....  The  hving  mediation  of  the  pupil  with  the  content  which  is 
to  be  impressed  upon  his  consciousness  is  the  work  of  the  teacher. " 

He  means  by  this  that  the  subject-matter  must 
be  adjusted  and  adapted  to  the  mind  taught  and 
there  is  an  interpenetration  between  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  and  the  thought  of  the  lesson. 


168  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Dr.  Charles  DeGarmo  in  his  preface  of  '^  Essentials 
of  Method''  gives  the  same  thought;  namely,  that 
there  is  a  method  in  the  child  and  a  method  in  the 
subject  of  study.  He  would  have  the  method  in 
the  subject  to  harmonize  with  the  stages  of  growth 
in  the  mind  of  the  child.  As  the  subject  develops 
it  must  correspond  to  the  identical  development 
of  the  learning  mind. 

Dr.  R.  N.  Roark  in  speaking  of  mind  and 
method   writes : 

"To  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter,  and  knowledge  of  mind 
and  mind  growth,  he  (the  teacher)  must  add  knowledge  of  how 
to  bring  subject-matter  and  growing  mind  into  such  contact  as 
shall  cause  mind  to  react  normally  on  knowledge-material,  and  to 
acquire,  assimilate  and  express. " 

These  educational  thinkers  are  trying  to  solve 
the  problem,  how  mind  becomes  matter  or  how 
matter  becomes  mind;  how  history  becomes  mind 
or  how  mind  becomes  history;  how  mind  becomes 
grammar  and  how  grammar  becomes  mind.  The 
law  in  the  mind  attempts  to  solve  the  problem,  how 
a  lesson  may  be  transformed  into  human  conscious- 
ness, or  how  the  human  mind  takes  on  those  forms 
of  thought  found  in  the  objective  world. 

Mind  Movement  in  Method. — The  fundamental 
movement  of  consciousness  in  gaining  knowledge  is 
a  thinking  process.  To  think  a  thing  is  to  unify 
To  Think  "the  thought  in  the  thing  with  the  law  in 
A  Thing  ^Yie  mind.  There  are  four  phases  in  this 
process:  Perceptive  thinking,  analytical  thinking, 
synthetical    thinking    and    thought    thinking.      To 


THE  METHOD  169 

illustrate  these  stages  in  the  process  of  knowing^ 
the  human  eye  may  be  made  the  basis  of  thinking. 
By  perceptive  thinking  the  mind  differentiates  the 
eye  from  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  mind 
first  grasps  the  eye  dimly,  vaguely  and  in  an  in- 
distinct manner.  By  analytical  thinking  the  eye 
is  analyzed  into  its  parts  and  attributes;  namely, 
coats;  sclerotic,  chorioid,  retina,  and  humors; 
aqueous,  vitreous,  crystalline  lens  and  into  other 
parts.  The  next  stage  of  thinking,  the  synthetical, 
unifies  and  organizes  all  parts  and  attributes  into 
a  completed  whole.  The  mind  is  a  unity  and  is  not 
satisfied  with  multiplicity,  but  seeks  constantly  to 
synthesize  what  it  originally  analyzed.  In  the  last 
stage  of  knowledge,  thought  thinks  thought  as  the 
creative  energy  of  the  eye.  The  mind  recognizes 
its  own  process  in  the  processes  constituting  the 
eye.  To  understand  the  intelligence  in  the  eye  is 
to  see  the  self  reflected  in  it.  Both  the  eye  and  the 
mind  are  the  unfolding  of  the  eternal  process  of 
the  universe  and  both  must  be  finally  unified  in 
teaching  and  learning  into  a  bond  of  spiritual 
freedom. 

In  the  fundamental  movement  of  mind  the  vague 
feeling  becomes  enlightened  feeling,  dim  knowledge 
becomes  clear  knowledge,  and  the  thing  thought 
becomes  the  self. 

Method  in  History. — The  thought  in  history  is: 
the  active  energy  bringing  events  into  existence, 
as — The  First  Steamboat — The  Purchase  of  Louisi- 
ana— The  Boston  Tea  Party — The  Panama  CanaL 


170  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Thought  The  law  in  the  mind  is  the  process  of 
In  Thmg  changing  the  event  with  its  ideas,  thoughts, 
feelings  and  volitions  into  the  inner  constitution 
of  the  human  soul.  History  has  an  emotional 
element  which  trains  and  affects  the  feelings,  as — 
the  death  of  McKinley,  the  duel  of  Hamilton  and 
Burr,  and  the  spirit  of  patriotism  which  touches, 
arouses,  and  develops  the  emotional  nature  of  the 
child.  Many  passages  in  history  stir  up  the  child 
to  do  things  and  give  him  an  impulse  to  higher 
life,  as— ''I'll  try,  sir!"  ''Don't  give  up  the  ship!" 
"I've  just  begun  to  fight!"  and  "I'll  fight  it  out  on 
this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer!" 

To  illustrate  the  law  in  the  mind  and  the  fact  in 
the  thing,  a  study  is  made  of  "The  First  Steam- 
boat." The  first  step  in  studying  an  event  is  to 
Law  in  seize    dimly    the    imagery    of    the    topic. 

TheMmd  j^  ^Yiq  ncxt  movcmcut  the  mind  analyzes 
the  event  into,  Clermont,  Robert  Fulton,  Hudson 
River,  1807  and  other  attributes,  parts,  ideas  and 
thoughts.  These  isolated  attributes  and  parts  are 
not  "The  First  Steamboat"  and  so  the  mind  must 
synthesize  these  elements  into  the  original  whole, 
and  the  indistinct  knowledge  becomes  truly  the  self. 
In  the  last  step  the  pupil  rethinks  the  thought  of 
Fulton  as  he  thought  out  the  steamboat  and  hence 
arrived  at  the  genetic  principle  of  the  event.  He 
recognizes  "The  First  Steamboat"  as  a  thought 
process,  it  becomes  he,  and  he  becomes  it. 

Method  in  history  can  be  understood  and  ex- 
plained only  by  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  and  prin- 


J 


THE  METHOD  171 

ciples  of  history  and  by  an  analysis  of  the  ^acts 

powers  and  processes  of  mind.  History  PiusMind 
must  be  resolved  into  mind  processes  and  mind 
must  be  mediated,  adjusted  to  the  historic  process. 
Each  element  in  history  must  be  organically  related 
to  a  corresponding  element  of  mind;  perception  to 
perception,  image  to  image  and  thought  to  thought. 
Should  an  event  be  presented  to  a  child  involving 
an  abstract  process  of  reasoning  the  teaching  act 
would  be  unpedagogical  because  the  child's  mind  is 
not  in  harmony  with  the  higher  form  of  mental  life. 
Were  it  possible  for  a  teacher  to  know  the  inner 
constitution  of  history  and  to  have  at  the  same 
time  a  delicate  knowledge  of  the  out-croppings  of 
the  human  mind,  then  teaching  would  be  based 
upon  an  exact  science  and  philosophy. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Mace  has  clearly  analyzed  the  history 
process  into  five  institutional  ideas:  Political, 
religious,  educational,  social  and  industrial.  Each 
of  these  fundamental  principles  represents  institutional 
a  great  institution — government,  church,  ^"^^^^ 

school,  family  and  occupation.  According  to 
this  doctrine,  history  is  a  stream  of  growing  insti- 
tutional ideas  and  deals  with  the  complete  life  of 
a  people. 

Primary  history  should  be  individual,  biographical 
and  should  be  written  in  a  most  pleasing  story  form 
to  introduce  the  child  to  the  local  institu-  primary 
tional  life.    The  mayor,  preacher,  teacher.  History 

the  social  organizer,  and  the  manufacturer  should 
be  studied  to  introduce  the  child  into  a  knowledge 


172  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  institutional  life.  After  the  child  has  studied 
these  different  institutional  ideas,  in  his  own  com- 
munity, he  should  be  led  to  study  the  same  facts 
in  the  county,  state  and  nation.  He  is  now 
introduced  into  the  realm  of  history  proper  and 
must  study  national  characters  representing  the 
five  institutional  ideas:  Political,  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson; religious,  John  Wesley;  educational,  John 
Harvard;  industrial,  Thomas  Edison;  social,  Jane 
Addams. 

In  the  intermediate  grades  the  historic  process 
changes  from  biographical  studies  to  that  of  com- 
munity life.  The  five  institutional  ideas  are  dis- 
intermediate  cusscd,  uot  as  coustitutiug  iudividuals. 
History  ^^^  embodylug  a  body  politic.  In  the 
local  community  the  town  council  is  studied  to 
represent  the  political  idea;  the  church,  religious; 
the  city  school,  educational;  the  bank  corporation, 
industrial  and  the  Tennyson  Club,  the  social.  After 
the  pupil  has  studied  many  examples  of  local  insti- 
tutional life,  in  city,  county  and  state,  he  is  prepared 
to  study  the  complexities  of  national  life;  namely — 
political.  Declaration  of  Independence  and  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States ;  religious.  The  Christian 
Endeavor  and  Ecumenical  Conference;  educational. 
The  Smithsonian  Institution  and  The  National 
University;  social,  Social  Settlements  and  Fraternal 
Orders;  industrial,  The  United  States  Steel  Cor- 
poration and  the  International  Harvester  Company. 
The  pupil  must  study  and  realize  that  history  treats 
of  the  entire  life  of  a  people  and  that  he  must  under- 


THE  METHOD  173 

stand  that  the  central  and  organizing  principle  of 
history  is  the  growth  of  institutional  life. 

Method  in  history  shows  how  these  objective 
institutional  ideas  are  to  become  subjective  to  the 
thinking  mind.  It  adjusts,  adapts  and  mediates 
these  thoughts,  found  in  human  events,  Method 

to  the  corresponding  phases  of  growth  in  i^  History 
the  life  of  a  child.  The  child's  political,  religious, 
educational,  industrial  and  social  life  are  adjusted 
to  similar  phases  of  life  exhibited  in  the  growth  and 
development  of  a  nation.  The  different  stages  of 
child  life  are  developed  in  and  through  a  study  of 
similar  phases  of  national  life. 

Method  in  Language. — Method  in  spelling,  Ian-, 
guage  and  composition  is  based  upon  the  funda- 
mental unity  between  the  mind  and  the  thing  it 
thinks.      In    spelling    the    mental    move-  Mental 

ment  is  to  see  the  word,  to  picture  the  Movement 
image  upon  which  the  word  depends  and  to  analyze 
it  into  letters,  sounds  and  syllables.  These  mental 
attributes  are  synthesized  and  the  word  is  thereby 
transmuted  into  mind  substance.  In  this  last  act 
mind  thinks  mind  as  embodied  in  the  meaning  of 
words. 

The  external  means  used  in  this  mental  move- 
ment are  objects,  pictures  and  stories.  In  order  to 
intensify  the  interest,  to  bring  the  motor  into  use, 
and  to  put  the  child  in  a  receptive  atti- 
tude, the  object  and  picture  should  be 
pasted  on  the  composition  paper.  Beautiful  pic- 
tures of  a  horse,  house,  apple,  berry,  peach,  plum, 


174  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

pear,  peas,  melon,  grapes,  lion,  dog,  sheep,  are 
inspiring  and  thought-producing.  A  combination 
of  form  and  color,  as  a  red  square,  a  blue  triangle, 
a  purple  rectangle,  a  green  circle,  a  pink  pentagon, 
and  a  white  oval  is  in  harmony  with  the  law  of 
correlation,  and  introduces  the  child  into  the 
meaning  of  words. 

In  the  realm  of  perceptive  thinking,  the  child 
is  led  into  the  world  of  objective  reality,  by 
observing,  by  absorbing  and  by  inquiring  the 
name,  the  word  and  the  spelling  of  objects.  In 
the  first  mental  movement  ''Words,  words,  words'' 
are  to  be  taught  the  child  from  an  infinite  number 
of  objects. 

The  next  step  in  language  is  to  combine  words — 
orally,  then  in  writing — into  sentences,  paragraphs 
and  discourse.  In  order  to  bring  the  child's  motor 
Motor  activity  into  use  and  as  a  means  of  ''busy 

Activity  work"  the  child  pastes  objects  and  pic- 
tures upon  paper  preparatory  to  writing  a  composi- 
tion. Such  objects  as  lead,  glass,  tea,  spice,  nutmeg, 
sugar,  salt,  ostrich  feather,  fish  scales,  sponge, 
cotton,  silk,  rubber,  sand,  etc.,  are  inspiring,  stimu- 
lating, and  thought-producing.  The  Perry  pictures 
or  the  Cosmos  pictures,  including  master  pieces  of 
art,  are  especially  adapted  to  composition  work. 
The  pupil  now  writes  from  internal  interest  and 
not  from  external  pressure.  He  is  brimful  of 
interest  and  writes  because  it  is  a  pleasure.  It  is 
said  that  when  Longfellow  was  required  to  write 
his  first  composition,  after  making  several  unsuc- 


THE  METHOD  175 

cessful  attempts,  he  informed  his  teacher  that  he 
could  not  write  it.  The  teacher  requested  him  to 
leave  the  school-room,  to  talk  to  himself  about 
some  object,  to  put  this  talk  on  paper  and  he  would 
accept  it  as  a  composition.  It  is  said  while  Long- 
fellow was  sitting  on  the  fence  looking  at 
Mr.  Finney^s  turnip-patch,  he  was  in- 
spired to  write  his  first  poem.  Longfellow  was  so 
intensely  interested  in  the  turnipi  that  the  com- 
position was  spontaneously  created.  The  idea  of 
the  turnip  in  the  mind  of  the  youth  pressed  for 
utterance.  He  had  a  message  to  communicate  and 
felt  a  joy  and  pleasure  in  expressing  his  thoughts. 
His  ideas  were  externalized  in  sentences  and  stanzas 
and  the  result  of  this  objectification  of  ideas  and 
thoughts  was  a  composition. 

Themes  in  Composition. — Themes  in  composition 
should  follow  the  law  of  universal  creation.  The 
fundamental  law  of  the  world  is  a  process,  a  be- 
coming, a  cycle,  a  return-to-itself.  Compositions 
should  accord  and  harmonize  with  the  actual 
processes  of  nature.  The  various  members  of  a 
class  should  write  a  narration  of  the  complete 
process  found  in  the  life,  growth  and  development 
of  an  oak  tree,  for  example,  to  illustrate  this  funda- 
mental principle:  The  themes  should  be  the  acorn, 
the  process  of  germination,  the  roots,  the  trunk, 
the  branches,  the  leaves,  the  blossoms,  the  fruit 
and  the  acorn.  The  movement  in  the  composition 
should  follow  the  fundamental  movement  in  the 
tree.     This  process  or  cycle  is  a  cosmic  principle 


176  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

which  Spinoza  says  should  be  thought  under  the 
form  of  eternity. 

THE  CYCLE  OF  THE  DRAGON-FLY. 
"To-day  I  saw  the  dragon-fly 
Come  from  the  wells  where  he  did  lie. 
An  inner  impulse  rent  the  veil 
Of  his  old  husk;  from  head  to  tail 
Came  out  clear  plates  of  sapphire  mail. " 

— Tennyson. 

This  poetry  is  given  simply  to  illustrate  the  idea 
of  the  cycle.  To  emphasize  the  value  of  the  process, 
the  becoming,  the  cycle,  the  return-to-itself,  *^The 
€ycle  of  the  Dragon-Fly"  is  given  to  show  the 
movement  of  thought  following  the  movement  of 
creation.  This  discussion  is  taken  from  an  article 
in  The  Inland  Educator  written  by  Prof.  Howard 
Sandison.  In  order  to  make  the  activities  of  the 
mind  in  the  composition  correspond  to  the  activi- 
ties of  the  dragon-fly,  the  arrangement  of  the  proc- 
ess is  given  on  page  177. 

This  cycle  shows  the  metamorphosis  or  trans- 
formation of  the  dragon-fly.  It  gradually  becomes 
more  complex,  more  perfect  and  more  free,  and 
hence  realizes  the  purpose  of  its  being.  The  dragon- 
fly attains  its  physical  freedom,  and  the  pupil  in 
following,  mentally,  the  physical  process  attains  his 
spiritual  freedom,  so  far  as  this  object  is  concerned. 
This  beautifully  illustrates  the  doctrine  that  the  law 
of  thinking  harmonizes  with  the  law  of  being.  There 
are  certain  objective  categories  in  the  dragon-fly 
that   parallel   certain  subjective   conditions  of   the 


THE  METHOD 


177 


human  mind.     Those  subjective  laws  or  thoughts 
are  the  mind's  way  of  thinking  the  objective  world. 


1.  The  fly  attaches  its  eggs  to  a  stem  of  a  water-plant.  2.  The  eggs  hatch  out 
into  a  bug-like  larva.  3.  The  larva  walks  about  on  the  bottom  of  the  lake. 
4.  It  leaps  through  the  water.  5.  It  sees  many  insects.  6.  It  devours  themt. 
7.  It  grows  very  fast.  8.  It  grows  too  large  for  its  shell-like  skin.  9.  It 
bursts  its  skin.  10.  It  throws  off  the  bursted  skin.  11.  It  moves  through 
the  water.  12.  Its  skin  gradually  hardens.  13.  It  eats  many  more  insects. 
14.  It  outgrows  its  skin  again.  15.  It  bursts  its  skin.  16.  It  throws  off  the 
outgrown  skin.  17.  It  now  apF>ears  as  a  pupa.  18.  Its  skin  soon  ■  hardens. 
19.  It  moves  about  in  the  water.  20.  It  eats  more  insects.  21.  It  grows 
larger.  22.  It  approaches  a  water-plant.  23.  It  climbs  upon  the  stem  of  a 
water-plant.  24.  It  reaches  the  open  air  above  the  water.  25.  It  grows  too 
large  for  its  skin  again.  26.  It  bursts  its  skin.  27.  It  casts  off  its  outgrown 
skin.  28.  It  emerges  a  Dragon-Fly.  29.  It  clings  to  the  stem  of  the  water- 
plant.  30.  Its  skin  hardens.  31.  Its  wings  become  dry.  32.  It  loosens  its 
hold  of  the  stem.  33.  It  flies  through  the  air.  34.  It  glistens  in  the  sun- 
light. 35.  It  hovers  over  the  lake.  36.  It  alights  on  a  water-plant.  37. 
It  attaches  its  eggs  to  the  stem  of  the  water-plant. 
12 


178  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

CATEGORIES  OF  THINKING  AND  BEING. 

1.  Substance. — The  dragon-fly  is  an  insect. 

2.  Quantity. — The  dragon-fly  is  two  inches  long. 

3.  Quality. — Its  wings  become  dry. 

4.  Relation. — It  emerges  a  dragon-fly. 

5.  Place. — It  attaches  its  eggs  to  a  stem. 

6.  Time. — It  bursts  when  it  grows  large. 

7.  Posture. — It  alights  upon  a  water-plant. 

8.  Condition. — It  grows  larger. 

9.  Action. — It  flies  through  the  air. 

10.  Passion. — The  dragon-fly  is  metamorphosed. 

The  Final  Doctrine  of  Method. — The  doctrine  of 
method  is  one  with  the  doctrine  of  philosophy — 
to  show  the  relation  between  the  objective  world 
and  the  subjective  world.  It  is  the  law  of  the  hu- 
man mind  that  it  parallels  in  its  function  the  law 
of  the  universe  so  far  as  its  capacity  is  able  to  grasp. 
The  result  of  the  mind^s  return-to-self  is  spiritual 
freedom.  The  history  and  evolution  of  method 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  history  and  develop- 
ment of  philosophy.  Originally,  method  was  con- 
sidered an  artificial  or  cunning  device  and  later  it 
Evolution  implied  a  knowledge  of  certain  psycho- 
of  Method  logical  activities.  Method  is  now  consid- 
ered a  fundamental  movement  of  mind  harmonizing 
with  the  central  organizing  principle  of  a  subject. 
In  the  beginning  of  philosophy,  water,  fire,  air  and 
the  infinite,  were  respectively  elementary  principles 
of  the  world.  Later,  spirit  or  nous  became  the 
foundation  principle  of  the  universe.  The  modern 
and  more  correct  doctrine  of  the  universe  seems  to 
unify  mind   and   matter   and   that   every  thing  is 


THE  METHOD  179 

material  and  meaning.  Nature  is  material  and 
meaning,  the  piano  is  material  and  meaning — each 
is  not  material  alone  nor  thought  alone.  The 
thought  '^ piano"  revealed  in  and  through  a  par- 
ticular material,  the  material  and  ideal  unified  in 
a  concrete  whole,  constitute  the  piano.  Method  in 
teaching  must  explain  this  mysterious  unity  and 
show  how  subjects  should  be  taught  to  harmonize 
with  the  above  doctrine. 


y-' 


XII. 

THE  PURPOSE. 

The  growth  process  in  teaching  has  a  movement, 
a  method  and  a  purpose.  The  movement  is  the 
general  way  in  which  the  mind  acts  in  learning, 
in  and  through  the  teaching  process.  The  method 
is  the  process  of  harmonizing  and  unifying  the  outer 
world  (the  branches  of  study)  with  the  inner  life 
and  thought  of  the  pupil.     The  purpose 

Purpose  I,-  •      X       .  .  .1       -        1  .    u 

of  teachmg  is  to  mspire  pupils  to  higher 
life  and  make  them  realize  their  true  worth  and 
destiny.  Each  act  in  teaching  is  purposive,  every 
lesson  recited  has  an  end,  and  every  process  in 
education  has  for  its  final  aim — the  evolution  of 
the  individual. 

The  Historic  Purpose. — The  history  of  education 
traces  out  the  aims  in  education  and  the  purposes 
in  teaching  and  gives  a  setting  or  background  for 
Old  all  educational  thought  and  activity.  Long 

Education  ^^^  g^  great  thinker  said:  The  true  pur- 
pose and  destiny  of  man  is  to  perfect  himself. 
This  end  was  attained  by  communicating  rather 
than  developing^  by  telling,  showing,  disciplining 
while  the  pupils  memorized,  listened  and  imitated. 
Physical  training  was  cultivated  simultaneously 
with  mind  training;  thinking  and  talking,  with 
running  and  jumping.  Early  educators  insisted 
on  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  and  taught  that 

180 


THE  PURPOSE  181 

the  real  purpose  in  teaching  is  to  arouse  the  self- 
activity  of  the  pupil.  To  begin  with  sense-intui- 
tion, observation,  induction,  and  experimentation, 
were  fundamental  principles,  and  all  learning  was 
thought  to  be  naturally  agreeable,  provided  the 
teacher  starts  with  known  truths  and  known  concepts. 
Modern  education  as  well  as  modern  philosophy 
begin  with  the  proposition,  '^I  think,  therefore, 
I  am.''  The  individual's  essential  nature  is  found 
to   be   thought,    mind,   soul,   intelligence,  New 

reason,  and  that  all  education  has  for  its  Education 
ultimate  purpose — the  training  in  thought  power. 
This  led  to  the  doctrine  that  spiritual  activity 
ends  in  knowledge,  and  that  knowledge  enables  the 
individual  to  act  rationally  and,  therefore,  makes 
him  free.  The  whole  educational  movement  be- 
comes a  process;  the  school  is  a  process;  teaching 
is  a  process;  thinking  is  a  process;  life  is  a  process, 
and  the  universe  itself  is  a  process.  Teachers  began 
to  preach  the  gospel  of  universal  education  and 
insisted  upon  a  harmonious  and  uniform  develop- 
ment of  all  the  powers  and  faculties  of  mind.  The 
ultimate  purpose  in  teaching  is  realized  by  using  the 
following  principles: 

1.  Activity  is  the  law  of  childhood;  educate  the  hand;  accustom 
the  child  to  do. 

2.  Cultivate  the  faculties  in  their  natural  order;    first  form  the 
mind — then  furnish  it. 

3.  Begin  with  the  senses  and  never  tell  a  child  what  he  can  find 
out  for  himself. 

4.  Reduce  every  subject  to  its  element;  one  difficulty  at  a  time 
is  enough  for  a  child. 


182  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

_  .    .  5.   Proceed  step  by  step;    the  measure  of  informa- 

OfTeacSng     *^°^  ^  ^°^  what  the  teacher  can  give  but  what  the 
child  can  receive. 
6    Let  every  lesson  have  a  point,  either  immediate  or  remote. 

7.  Develop  the  idea  and  then  give  the  term;  cultivate  language. 

8.  Proceed  from  the  known  to  the  related  imknown;  from  the 
particular  to  the  general;  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract;  from 
the  simple  to  the  difficult. 

9.  First  synthesis  and  then  analysis;  not  the  order  of  the  sub- 
ject, but  the  order  of  nature. 

These  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  are  next 
combined  with  the  old  education,  and  psychical 
life  is  considered  a  kind  of  dynamic  chemistry 
The  Old  in  of  idcas,  and  consciousness  is  said  to 
The  New  depend  upon  the  tension  and  intensity 
of  ideas.  If  ideas  are  pressed  below  the  threshold 
of  consciousness  they  become  impulses.  This 
psychology  (called  by  some  mythical)  explains  how 
new  ideas  are  assimilated  to  old  ones — apperception. 
Psychology  becomes  the  basis  of  all  work  in  ped- 
agogy and  the  final  purpose  of  education  is  moral 
training.  This  pedagogical  theory  may  be  con- 
trasted with  the  educational  doctrine  that  education 
is  conscious  evolution.  *^The  Prince  of  Educators" 
makes  all  teaching  a  development  of  self-activity 
induced  by  certain  external  stimuli.  Acquisition, 
assimilation,  and  expression  of  knowledge  must  be 
a  work  of  liberty  and  spontaneity. 

The  final  purpose  of  teaching  and  education  is  to 
transform  the  child^s  potence  into  actu- 
ality. Education  is  a  growth  in  self-con- 
sciousness and  leads  the  individual  into  a  reflective 
consideration  of  self  as  estranged  from  self.     Spirit 


THE  PURPOSE  183 

objectifies  itself,  rethinks  itself,  and  becomes  con- 
scious of  its  own  essence.  This  doctrine  culminates  in 
self-realization  and  perfection,  the  final  and  supreme 
aim  in  all  teaching  and  education. 

Means  •  and  End. — The  teacher  should  have  a 
clear  distinction  between  efficient  cause  or  means 
in  teaching  and  final  cause  or  end  in  life.  The 
teaching  act  employs  certain  external  factors,  text- 
books, apparatus,  and  knowledge  which  are  neces- 
sary to  accomplish  a  definite  aim  in  life.  To  the 
thoughtful  teacher  every  process  in  teaching,  every 
law  in  government  and  every  principle  in  Efficient  and 
education  presuppose  some  definite  end  F^^ai  cause 
in  life  thought  out.  The  ideal  teacher  does  not 
teach  a  subject  until  he  realizes  what  effect  it  may 
have  upon  the  final  purpose  and  destiny  of  the  pupil. 
The  purpose  in  the  life  of  a  child  should  be  thor- 
oughly understood  and  made  the  basis  of  every 
movement  in  teaching.  To  teach  in  a  hap-hazard 
way,  without  foreseeing  the  end  in  each  act,  is  to 
fail  to  teach  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 

The  school  is  an  organized  product  of  mind  and 
has  inherent  in  it  a  reciprocal  relationship  between 
means  and  end.  There  is  nothing  purposeless  in 
the  school;  nothing  that  is  not  determined  by  the 
original  school  idea  which  brought  it  into  existence. 
This  fundamental  teleological  principle  organizes 
the  school  and  determines  the  universal  law  in 
teaching.  It  is  that  final  cause  which  the  teacher 
holds  in  mind  while  molding  the  efficient  factors 
into   terms   of  life.     The   design   in  teaching   is  a 


184  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Teaching  Hioving  foFce  which  realizes  itself  in  the 
Purposive  pupiFs  life  through  certain  efficient  forces 
found  in  the  recitation.  Teaching  is  a  purposive 
act  and  aims  not  at  knowledge  acquired,  and  pages 
recited,  but  at  the  complete  evolution  of  the  in- 
dividual into  a  higher  and  nobler  life.  It  is  not 
merely  an  intellectual,  social,  aesthetical  and  moral 
process,  but  has  a  deep  design  hidden  in  its  nature 
that  leads  the  pupil  into  unity  with  the  purpose  of 
the  world. 

When  the  teacher  studies  the  parts  of  the  school 
and  their  organic  relation  to  each  other,  he  is  in 
the  realm  of  efficient  causes;  but  when  he  considers 
the  purpose  of  the  school,  in  relation  to  life,  he  is 
led  to  contemplate  and  study  final  causes  of  the 
educational  process.  The  pedagogical  student  can- 
not understand  the  aim  of  a  process  in  teaching 
by  examining  the  machinery,  but  must  penetrate 
into  the  inner  subjective  school  to  get  an  idea  of 
its  purpose  or  design.  The  nature  of  a  thing  is  not 
found  in  sense  perception,  but  in  reason  which 
constitutes  its  essence.  To  understand  the  nature 
of  the  school  is  to  penetrate  its  creative  energy  and 
Purpose  "to  understand  its  creative  purpose.  The 
Creative  school  cau  bc  explained  only  by  knowl- 
edge of  the  idea  and  end  of  its  existence.  It  is  not 
based  upon  mechanical  laws,  but  requires  a  principle 
having  a  definite  end  in  view.  This  principle  ex- 
plains the  ultimate  purpose  of  the  school  and  gives 
a  definite  aim  in  teaching.  The  teacher  must  be 
able  to  look  beneath  the  multiplied  activities  of 


THE  PURPOSE  185 

the  school  and  detect  the  all-sufficient  cause  which 
gives  law  to  its  existence.  To  distinguish  the- 
teaching  process  as  design  from  the  teaching  process 
based  upon  mechanical  laws  is  to  understand  that 
universal  factor  which  determines  the  various 
activities  of  the  school  and  gives  a  clue  to  its  purpose. 
The  understanding  conceives  the  school  as  a  whole 
depending  upon  its  parts,  while  the  intuitive  in- 
sight arrives  at  the  inner  content  and  meaning  of 
the  forces  and  factors  depending  upon  the  whole^ 
To  think  the  school  and  its  function  is  to  trace 
back  its  final  cause  which  realizes  itself  through 
certain  external  paraphernalia.  The  idea  of  design 
bridges  the  chasm  between  the  objective  and  sub- 
jective school  and  shows  that  means  in  teaching 
should  be  in  harmony  with  the  final  aim  in  educa- 
tion. To  study  the  aim  in  teaching  is  to  use  the 
heuristic  principle  of  inquiring  into  its  inner  nature 
and  to  understand  the  relation  between  Finality  in 
means  and  end.  There  is  a  finality  in  Teaching 
every  process  in  teaching  which  must  have  a  cause. 
This  cause  does  not  lie  in  the  external  objective 
school,  but  in  the  inner  spirit  and  life  of  the  organism. 
The  end  in  thought  creates  the  school  and  moves, 
forward  to  its  realization  through  certain  means 
adapted  to  its  expression  and  purpose.  To  attain 
a  maximum  skill  in  teaching  is  to  grasp  firmly  the 
fundamental  aim  in  education  which  is  one  with 
the  purpose  of  life. 

The   Supreme    Purpose. — The     supreme    aim    in 
teaching   is  to  transform   knowledge   into  life,   to 


186  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

make  grammar,  arithmetic,  history  and  other  sub- 
jects life  unfolding  instruments.  Teaching  unites 
the  not-self  with  the  self  by  means  of  a  spiritual 
principle  which  is  presupposed  in  the  difference  of 
subject  and  object.  The  entire  life  of  the  school  is 
a  reciprocal  action  between  these  two  forces  whose 
resultant  is  knowledge  and  culture.  We  can  know 
the  object  only  in  unity  with  the  self  and  we  can 
know  the  subject  only  as  it  is  realized  in  the  object. 
The  final  aim  in  teaching  is  to  recognize  that  sub- 
jects of  study  exist  in  opposition  to  and  in  relation 
to  the  mind  and  that  the  self  exists  only  as  it  realizes 
itself  in  history,  grammar,  etc.  Grammar  is  opposed 
to  mind  yet  contains  an  element  which  sustains  an 
organic  relation  to  mind.  Subject-matter  and  mind 
are  extreme  terms  representing  a  difference  which 
is  essential  to  rational  life.  The  subject  presupposes 
the  object  yet  both  are  rooted  in  a  higher  spiritual 
principle  which  indicates  a  unity  in  difference.  It 
Final  Aim  IS  the  purpose  of  teaching  to  show  the 
In  Teaching  relation  bctwceu  subject  and  object,  inner 
and  outer  experience,  and  to  understand  how  these 
two  elements  are  distinguished,  yet  never  dis- 
jointed. The  teacher^s  duty  is  to  unite  and  relate 
the  consciousness  of  the  subject,  to  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  individual  studying.  There  is  no  impas- 
sable gulf  between  the  inner  and  outer  world,  but 
there  is  organic  unity  in  their  difference.  The  life 
of  the  child  is  not  disjointed  from  all  outer  experi- 
ence for  his  inner  self  is  nothing  but  a  return  upon 
himself  from  the  outer  world.    The  teaching  process 


THE  PURPOSE  187 

clearly  reveals  the  fact  that  self-consciousness,  cut 
off  from  the  objective  world,  is  an  absurdity  and 
that  the  branches  of  study  can  be  understood  only 
in  relation  to  the  thinking  self.  The  movement  by 
which  the  teacher  transforms  subject-matter  and 
makes  it  the  basis  for  spiritual  development,  is 
an  evolutionary  process  which  manifests  that 
unitary  principle  conditioning  and  underlying  all 
life.  A  deep  study  of  modern  science,  literature 
and  philosophy  discloses  the  fact  that  the  teacher 
is  the  polar  opposite  of  the  child  and  that  the  ob- 
jective world,  as  the  ultimate  expression  of  the 
curriculum,  is  the  all-sufficient,  unitary,  eternal 
force  which  organizes  these  seemingly  contradic- 
tory elements  into  a  bond  of  spiritual  freedom. 

According  to  Kant  the  impulse  which  stimulates 
us  to  grow  is  due  to  three  ideas — the  world,  the  self 
and  God.  Our  intelligence  is  based  upon  a  pre- 
supposition of  these  ideas  and  are  the  final  aims  in 
knowledge.  One  purpose  in  teaching  is  to  demon- 
strate the  unity  of  the  world  amidst  its  complexities 
and  to  show  the  interconnections  and  relations 
existing  between  the  different  parts  and  laws.  To 
interpret  the  outer  world  the  mind  must  seek  an 
ultimate  unity  revealed  in  differences  between 
object  and  subject.  According  to  a  great  modern 
thinker,  ''Every  step  toward  the  conception  of  the 
world  or  of  any  part  of  it  as  a  system,  every  step 
toward  the  comprehension  of  the  unity  of  the  intelli- 
gence in  all  the  variety  of  its  activities,  every  step 
toward   a  rational   view  of    the   relation   between 


188  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Unitary  the  intelligence  and  the  intelligible  world, 
Ideas  jg  g^  g^^p  toward  the  verification  and,  in 

an  etymological  sense,  the  demonstration  of  the  princi- 
ples of  unity  presupposed  in  the  whole  process.  '^  It 
should  be  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  reduce  the 
manifold,  in  the  various  lessons,  to  unitary  ideas 
to  be  transmuted  into  mind  substance.  The  true 
purpose  in  teaching  is  to  trace  the  multiplicity  of 
facts  in  a  given  subject  back  to  its  original  creative 
source,  as  the  facts  of  history  back  to  its  institu- 
tional ideas,  and  forms  of  sentences  in  grammar 
back  to  their  original  creative  principle,  and  the 
numerous  problems  in  arithmetic  to  the  ratio  idea 
and  finally  to  unify  these  branches  of  study  into  a 
generic  whole. 

To  seek  constantly  for  the  unity  of  things  lifts 
the  student  finally  into  the  absolute  unity  of  the 
world.  Both  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  are  forced 
Divine  from   the    very    nature    of    consciousness 

^^'*y  itself  to  presuppose  an  Infinite  Mind  as 

the  source  of  all  consciousness  and  the  first  and 
last  principle  of  all  knowing  and  being.  The  ulti- 
mate purpose  in  teaching  is  to  trace  out  the  divine 
unity  holding  the  world  together  and  to  induce  the 
pupil  to  be  a  partaker  of  the  divine  idea  and,  there- 
fore, to  attain  his  freedom. 

This  supreme  purpose  in  teaching  has  been  dis- 
cussed to  lead  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  into  the 
highest  conceptions  of  life  and  to  make  them 
responsive  to  the  soul's  true  worth.  These  high 
ideals  give  the  mind  an  impulse  to  know  the  world. 


THE  PURPOSE  189 

to  understand  the  secrets  of  the  mind  and  finally 
to  unify  itself  with  the  outer  world  through  an 
infinite  unity  or  God. 

Oliver   Wendell    Holmes    most    beautifully    pic- 
tures the  purpose  of  teaching  and  education: 

"Teacher  of  teachers!    Yours  the  task, 
Noblest  that  noble  minds  can  ask. 

High  up  JEonia's  murmurous  mount, 

To  watch,  to  guard  the  sacred  fount 
That  feeds  the  streams  below; 

To  guide  the  hurrying  flood  that  fills 

A  thousand  silvery  rippHng  rills, 
In  ever-widening  flow. 

"  Rich  is  the  harvest  from  the  fields 
That  bounteous  Nature  kindly  yields; 

But  fair  growths  enrich  the  soil 

Ploughed  deep  by  thought's  imwearied  toil, 
In  Learning's  broad  domain. 

And  where  the  leaves,  the  flowers,  the  fruits, 

Without  your  watering  at  the  roots, 
To  fill  each  branching  vein? 

"Welcome!  Author's  firmest  friends. 
Your  voice  the  surest  godspeed  lends. 

For  you  the  growing  mind  demands 

The  patient  care,  the  guiding  hands 
Through  all  the  mists  of  mom. 

You  knowing  well  the  future's  need, 

Your  prescient  wisdom  sows  the  seed 
To  flower  in  years  unborn. " 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS 

THE    THINKING    PROCESS 

xni. 

THE  LAW 

The  fundamental  law  in  teaching  parallels  the 
essential  law  in  thinking.  To  teach  a  pupil  is  to 
cause  him  to  think;  to  think  is  to  translate  object 
relations  into  mind  substance;  to  know  is  to  recog- 
nize the  relations  which  constitute  a  thing.  The 
organic  elements  of  thinking  are  mind  activity  and 
a  process  of  unifying  mind  with  thought  external 
to  itself.  Mind  grows  by  identifying  itself  with 
mind  embodied  in  the  external  world.  It  attains 
its  freedom  when  it  realizes  its  possibilities,  and 
when  it  takes  on  to  itself  the  spiritual  content  of 
the  universe.    T.  H.  Green  says: 

"Our  conception  of  an  order  of  nature  and  the  relations  which 
form  that  order,  have  a  common  spiritual  source." 

By  thinking,  the  individual  enters  into  the  inner 
essence  of  things.  The  thinker  finds  behind  all 
things — thought.  He  discovers  in  things  his  other 
self,  identifies  himself  with  himself,  and  thus  real- 
izes his  true  nature.  In  the  learning  process,  the 
student  finds  in  subject-matter  a  self-activity  akin 
to  his  own  nature.  There  are  just  two  elements 
in  all  thought  processes:  the  thinking  mind  and  the 
thing  to  be  taught.  In  studying  botany  the  mind 
190 


THE  LAW  191 

is  one  organic  element  and  the  plant  is  organic 
the  other.  The  knowledge  called  botany  Elements 
is  a  mental  synthesis  of  mind  life  and  plant  life. 
When  the  object  relations  are  grounded  into  sub- 
ject relations  the  result  is  called  botany.  In  the 
ultimate  analysis  botany  is  mind  rather  than 
matter.  It  is  that  science  which  treats  of  the  ideas 
and  structure  of  plant  life  as  interpreted  by  thought. 
The  universal  law  of  thinking  may  be  expressed 
by  the  axiom  given  in  method:  The  law  in  the 
mind  must  exactly  correspond  with  the  fact  in  the 
thing.  The  law  of  thinking  requires  a  knowledge 
of  mind  activity  and  a  scientific  knowledge  of 
things  to  be  taught. 

Thinking  and  Teaching. — In  teaching,  the  teach- 
er unifies  the  mind  process  with  the  object 
process  by  thinking  the  two  together.  The  move- 
ment in  teaching  differs  from  the  movement  in 
thinking.  The  former  process  consists  in  following 
the  thought  of  the  pupil,  and  the  latter  process 
consists  in  following  the  thought  of  the  subject. 
Reason  or  thought  is  the  essence  of  both  the  think- 
ing mind  and  the  external  world  to  be  thought. 
If  objective  reality  contains  no  thought,  as  a  square 
fluid  or  a  moral  substance,  it  is  unthinkable,  for 
the  mind  cannot  think  that  which  has  no  thought 
element  in  it.     To  think  the  elephant  is  Reason 

to  trace  the  thoughts  embodied  in  its  ^r  Thought 
structure,  in  its  attributes  and  in  its  function. 
It  is  a  process  of  uniting  certain  relations  in  the 
mind  to  similar  relations  in  the  elephant.     If  the 


192  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

elephant  contains  no  thought  relations  and  there 
is  nothing  to  which  to  tie  mind  relations,  then  it, 
too,  is  unthinkable.  We  are  inevitably  brought 
to  the  doctrine:  ''The  rational  is  the  real  and 
the  real  is  the  rational/' 

Essentials  in  Thinking. — An  ancient  thinker 
set  forth  the  relations  by  which  an  object  exists. 
A  modern  thinker  made  these  objective  relations 
the  subjective  laws  of  thought.  The  mind  in  think- 
ing an  object  takes  on  to  itself  a  form  of  thought 
harmonizing  with  the  passive  thought  in  the  thing. 
In  the  evolution  and  the  history  of  thought,  the 
next  great  thinker  announced  the  doctrine 

Thinking  ,  ,,  f      t  »     i  • 

that  the  law  of  thmkmg  is  equal  to  the 
law  of  being.  The  forms  of  thought  found  in  things 
become  the  forms  of  consciousness.  These  two 
elements  in  thinking  are  organic  because  the  proc- 
ess cannot  exist  without  both.  A  recent  thinker 
has  worked  out  the  most  profound  law  of  human 
thinking,  as  follows:  To  think  a  thing  in  existence 
is  the  same  process  as  thinking  the  thing  as  coming 
into  existence. 

Thinking  Genetically. — To  think  a  thing  ge- 
netically is  to  trace  the  thought  in  the  thing  as 
it  comes  into  existence.  To  think  the  house  as  it 
is,  is  to  think  it  in  the  process  of  becoming.  To 
think  the  apple  genetically  is  to  follow  the  apple 
Thinking  process  from  the  seed  through  the  tree  to 
In  a  Cycle  j^^ie  fruit.  The  most  fundamental  process 
in  thinking  a  thing  is  to  think  it  in  its  return-to- 
itself;  to  think  it  as  a  cycle;  to  think  it  under  the 


THE  LAW  193 

form  of  eternity.  To  think  the  watch  is  to  follow  the 
watch  process  in  the  mind  of  the  maker;  to  trace 
out  the  universal,  ideal  watch  creatively;  to  note 
the  universal  becoming  individual  through  the 
material;  to  observe  the  metal  transformed  to 
suit  the  ideal;  to  think  the  adjustment  and  organi- 
zation into  a  completed  product.  To  think  the 
watch  in  this  manner  is  to  transmute  the  watch 
process  in  its  being  and  becoming  into  mind  sub- 
stance. To  think  the  chicken  is  to  trace  the  vital 
process  as  it  divides  and  differentiates  itself  from 
a  vague  whole  to  a  perfected  individual.  Things 
in  nature  divide,  compare,  exemplify  and  define 
themselves,  as  it  were,  and  to  know  these  things  is 
to  change  these  processes  into  mind  terms.  A 
study  of  the  thinking  process  gradually  leads  the 
student  into  the  realm  of  ontogeny  and  embryology. 
The  Movement  in  Thinking. — As  thinking  trans- 
mutes the  object  into  the  subject  every  conscious 
act  is  a  thought  process.  There  is  one  continued 
process  of  thinking  from  sensation  to  reason.  The 
function  of  each  mental  act  is  to  organize  the  world 
without  with  the  world  within  through  a  common 
spiritual  principle.  Thinking  in  sensation 
is  the  act  of  uniting  the  ego  with  the 
external  world  through  the  senses.  The  factors  in 
sensation  are  the  world  of  experience  to  be  internal- 
ized, the  bodily  organism  as  the  medium  of  com- 
munication between  mind  and  matter,  and  the 
psychical  activity  which  negates  and  transmutes 
the  object  into  mind  terms.     In  this  lowest  stage 

13 


194  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  thinking  the  mind  gradually  passes  from  the 
external  to  the  internal.  ''How  the  immaterial  can 
be  united  with  matter/'  says  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
**is  the  mystery  of  mysteries  to  man.''  In  regard 
to  this  problem'  materialism  affirms  that  mental 
activity  is  due  to  some  form  of  molecular  motion. 
According  to  dualism  the  unity  between  mind  and 
matter  is  incomprehensible.  Idealism  makes  the 
objective  world  a  manifestation  of  mind  with  which 
it  becomes  united.  Occasionalism  maintains  that 
mind  can  know  matter  only  through  the  interven- 
tion of  God.  According  to  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
established  harmony,  God  by  divine  fiat  establishes 
a  harmonious  relationship  between  mind  and  matter. 
In  perceptive  thinking  the  mind  seizes  some 
special  object  in  the  stream  of  sensation,  identifies 
it  with  itself  and  particularizes  it  in  the  outer  world. 
The  movement  of  the  mind  in  perception 

Perception  r    i  ^  , '     * ,  t 

has  a  three-fold  activity:  Impression  is 
a  specializing  of  the  object  and  the  mind  in  an 
involuntary  way;  attention  is  the  concentration 
of  the  mind  upon  a  particular  object  and  a  unifica- 
tion of  the  object  with  the  self.  The  mind  attends 
to  those  objects  in  which  it  has  an  interest.  An 
object  is  interesting  which  assists  the  spirit  in  gain- 
ing its  freedom.  In  attention  the  mind  particular- 
izes itself,  the  object  is  particularized  and  ideated. 
Attention  is,  pedagogically  speaking,  the  funda- 
mental requisite  of  the  school.  A  teacher  must  have 
the  ability  to  arouse  interest  and  thereby  gain 
attention   or   the   teaching   act    will    be   a   failure. 


THE  LAW  195 

Pupils  must  realize  that  the  subject  studied  lies 
between  their  real  and  ideal  condition  of  life,  and 
that  it  is  essential  to  their  self-realization.  The  third 
process  in  perceptive  thinking  is  retention  which 
makes  the  ideated  object  permanent  in  conscious- 
ness. Retention  is  secured  by  following  the  maxim 
— Repetition  is  the  mother  of  wisdom.  Drilling 
and  testing,  in  various  ways,  deepen  the  retentive 
process  and  are  valuable  exercises  in  teaching  the 
different  subjects. 

In  apperceptive  thinking  the  mind  assimilates, 
integrates  and  internalizes  the  external.  It  is  a 
process  by  which  the  mind  gives  significance  or 
meaning  to  mental  products.  In  apperception  the 
mind  gains  new  knowledge  through  the  related  old. 
Early  education  should  develop  the  apperceptive 
mass  and  give  the  pupil  a  basic  foundation  for 
later    knowledge.      Herbart    gave    apper- 

.....  .        •/-  1  ^       'J.    Apperception 

ception  its  true  significance  and  made  it 
the  corner-stone  of  his  pedagogy.  The  term  was 
originated  by  Leibnitz  who  used  it  in  the  sense  of 
self-consciousness.  Apperception  has  a  deep  peda- 
gogical value.  Thinking  is  apperceptive,  learning 
is  apperceptive  and  the  whole  educational  process 
is  based  upon  the  doctrine  that  knowledge  assimi- 
lates knowledge. 

Representative  thinking  deals  with  the  image 
and  is  the  intermediate  mental  state  between  per- 
ceiving the  object  and  thinking  thought.  The 
human  mind  in  its  evolution  passes  from  sense 
perception  through  the  image  to  the  supreme  mental 


196  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

act  known  as  thinking.  The  stages  of  knowing  are 
sensing,  imaging  and  thinking.  In  perception  the 
mind  is  trying  to  internalize  the  external.  Imaging 
is  a  process  of  looking  at  the  percept  from  within. 
It  is  the  mind^s  view  of  the  object  as  seen  apart 
from  it.  In  the  movement  of  the  mind  in  memory- 
thinking  the  image  of  the  object  is  separated, 
identified,   retained,   recalled,   recollected, 

Memory  •        i         mi         • 

represented,  and  recognized.  The  image 
is  not  stored  away  in  some  brain-cell  and  memory 
is  not  *^ habit  working  in  the  nerve-centres.''  The 
mind  is  not  local  but  ideal  and  immaterial.  Memory 
is  unfolded  genetically  out  of  the  mind's  own  proc- 
ess and  its  essential  characteristic  is  recalling  the 
image.  The  law  of  association  is  found  in  the  mind's 
own  process  which  is  unitary  and  dual. 

"No  external  law  can  bind  forever  the  ego  whose  essence  is  to 
be  self-legislative." 

Imaginative  thinking  reproduces  the  image  and 
separates  it  into  form  and  meaning.  The  image  is 
not  a  copy  of  the  object  but  now  becomes  a  copy 
of  the  mind  itself.  ''The  alien  copy  of  external 
nature  is  now  to  undergo  a  transformation  till  the 
ego  can  see  itself;  see  its  own  meaning  in  the  image. 
Previously  the  ego  has  been  chiefly  a  mirror  of  the 
outside  world,  and  the  image  has  been 
a  true  likeness  of  the  object.  But  the 
ego  is  more  than  the  simple  mirror,  it  in  its  inner- 
most essence  is  also  the  thing  mirrored."  The 
imagination   does   not  reproduce  the  image  as  in 


THE  LAW  197 

memory  but  puts  new  meaning  into  the  object 
itself.  The  whole  movement  of  imagination  hinges 
upon  the  mind's  scission  into  symbol  and  signifi- 
cance. Gesture,  voice  and  picture-making  are 
forms  of  symbolism  in  which  the  mind  is  struggling 
for  freedom.  The  dual  form  of  mind  activity  be- 
comes more  and  more  pronounced  and  is  illustrated 
by  the  symbolic  expressions  in  literature,  i.e., 
metaphor,  parable,  simile,  riddle,  oracle,  pun,  fable, 
proverb,  apologue,  personification,  allegory.  The 
myth  and  the  fairy-tale  are  a  species  of  symbolism 
that  respond  to  the  life  of  the  child.  The  modern 
novel  is  a  form  of  conscious  symbolism  in  which 
life  is  expressed  directly  without  the  intervening  of 
a  deity,  as  in  Homer.  The  mind  in  its  imaginative 
thinking  passes  from  symbolic  art  to  classic  and 
attains  its  highest  activity  in  romantic  art.  Froebel 
understood  the  value  of  the  symbol  in  education 
and  made  it  the  centre  of  his  system.  The  mind 
gradually  passes  from  a  knowledge  and  use  of  the 
symbol  to  the  word  which  reveals  thought. 

In  the  highest  stage  of  thinking  the  mind  recog- 
nizes itself  to  be  the  object,  and  the  object  to  be 
what  the  self  is.  It  is  a  process  of  thought  thinking 
thought.     Thought   now   grasps   thought 

4.1:  4.'  f     XU  IJ  T  Thought 

as  the  creative  energy  of  the  world.  In 
thinking  the  tree  the  mind  seizes  its  genetic  principle 
which  is  a  manifestation  of  divine  thought.  The 
mind  in  thinking  a  manufactured  article  unifies 
itself  with  finite  thought  which  brought  it  into 
existence.    Objective  thought  is  in  the  outer  world; 


198  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

subjective  thought  is  in  the  mind.  Thinking  is  a 
process  of  uniting  the  two  into  a  bond  of  knowledge. 

"  Psychology  is  an  evolution  of  the  ego  ever  separating  from  itself 
yet  ever  returning  into  itself  in  larger  and  larger  cycles  till  it 
embraces  the  universe. " 

In  the  onward  sweep  of  thought  in  grasping  the 
objective  world,  the  mind  passes  through  three 
stages  of  psychical  activity,  i.e.,  understanding, 
ratiocination  and  reason.  According  to  Kant  there 
are  two  stems  of  knowledge:  sense  and  under- 
standing. By  means  of  the  category  of  identity, 
the  understanding  grasps  the  thought  bf  the  thing 
immediately  without  any  process  of  reasoning.  It 
probes  into  the  inner  nature  of  things  and  enters 
into  the  realm  of  law,  force  and  cause.  Under- 
Under-  staudiug  iu  its   primary   act   apprehends 

standing  ^j^^  object  immediately.  Apprehension 
presupposes  distinction  which  is  made  up  of  ab- 
straction and  discrimination.  In  abstraction  the 
mind  thinks  apart  from  the  object  some  quality 
or  property  belonging  to  it.  It  does  not  grasp  the 
genetic  movement  of  the  object  but  only  certain 
external  characteristics. 

"Abstraction  cracks  the  shell  of  externality  by  its  separation, 
and  opens  the  door  to  knowledge." 

To  understand  an  object  is  also  to  discriminate, 
to  compare,  to  classify. 

"In  classifying  objects  the  understanding  is  reaching  out  for 
their  creative  principle,  for  that  which  differentiates  them,  yet 
restores  them  to  unity. " 


THE  LAW  199 

In  classification  the  mind  dwells  in  the  realm  of 
cause  originating  things,  force  creating  cause  and 
law  manifesting  both.  Force  manifests  itself  and 
perishes;    law  is  the  permanent  amid  the  variable. 

The  combined  movement  of  the  mind  in  con- 
ception, judgment  and  reasoning  has  been  called 
ratiocination.  Identity  is  the  category  of  the 
understanding  but  difference  is  the  category  of 
ratiocination.     The   ratiocinative   process 

Ratiocination 

creates    forms    which    are    necessary    tor 
the  expression  of  thought.     The  logical  movement 
of    thought    is    through    concept,    proposition    and 
syllogism.    The  psychological  movement  is  through 
conception,  judgment  and  reasoning. 

In  understanding,  the  mind  thinks  a  thing  ex- 
ternally. In  conception,  the  mind  thinks  the  thing 
as  to  its  genetic  principle. 

"The  conceptive  act  of  mind  is  creativity,  .  .  .  Conception 
is  the  germinal  idea  which  divides  within  itself,  expands  and  clothes 
itself  with  the  details  of  its  existence." 

To  grasp  the  conception  of  a  poem  is  to  see  the 
poem  creating  itself  through  the  mind's  own  pro- 
ductive energy.  The  organic  elements  of  con- 
ception are  the  universal,  the  particular  and  the 
individual. 

The  generic  usually  expresses  a  physical  process, 
the    universal,    a    mental    process.      The 

Universal 

universal    has   been   defined   as   absolute 
identity — that  which  cancels  all  difference  and  other- 
ness.  When  the  universal  passes  out  into  the  world  it 


200  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

does  not  lose  its  identity,  but  maintains  itself  in 
the  particular.  The  universal  is  the  creative  prin- 
ciple formulating  all  existence.  Conceptual  think- 
ing creates  things  in  thinking  them.  It  generates 
the  thing  anew  as  it  was  originally  created  by  the 
divine  mind  in  nature  and  by  the  finite  mind  in 
man^s  products. 

The  univei:sal  differentiates  itself  in  the   partic- 
ular.    It   has    within    itself  that   inherent   energy 
which  creates  species.     The  natural  world  as  well 
as   the  spiritual   has  a  tendency  to  par- 

Particular  . .       ,       .  . ,       ,  r  n^i  ,  •       i  i 

ticularize  itself.  The  particular  always 
returns  to  the  universal  to  seek  its  origin.  It  is  the 
law  of  both  matter  and  mind  that  the  particular 
returns  to  its  universal  source.  If  this  law  be 
violated,  and  the  particular  fails  to  be  one  with  its 
creative  energy,  a  conflict  follows. 

The  movement  of  both  mind  and  nature  is  from 
the  universal  to  the  particular,  and  from  the  partic- 
ular to  the  individual.  A  poem  has  no  reality 
except  in  individuality.  However,  every 
individual  poem  has  for  its  generative 
process,  the  universal.  It  is  at  the  same  time  a 
particular  kind  of  poem — dramatic,  lyric,  comic, 
epic.  It  seems  that  the  individual,  particular  and 
universal  are  not  three  movements  of  mind,  but  all 
form  one  total  process.  This  triune  process  is  found 
in  the  inorganic  world,  in  organic  life,  and  in  God 
himself. 

Conceptual  thinking  utters  itself  in  a  judgment 
which    is    separated    into    subject    and    predicate. 


THE  LAW  201 

Thought  is  born  in  the  judgment  which 
is  made  up  of  three  factors — the  think- 
ing self,  two  states  of  consciousness  and  the 
spiritual  connection  of  things.  The  idea  ink  and 
the  idea  black  cannot  form  a  judgment  except 
through  the  unitary  and  abiding  self  and  a  truth 
common  to  both. 

Reasoning  is  a  process  of  combining  two  judg- 
ments through  a  relation  of  a  third.  Every  process 
in  reasoning  has  a  major  premise,  a  minor  premise 
and  a  conclusion.  The  major  premise  is 
a  thought  form  which  now  unifies  the 
syllogism  with  reason  itself.  There  is  a  gradual 
evolution  of  thinking  from  sense  to  image,  image 
to  thought  and  thought  to  reason.  According  to 
Dr.  Harris  there  a^re  three  stages  of  thinking :  First, 
thinking  objects;  second,  thinking  relations;  third, 
thinking  the  self-determining  principle.  In  think- 
ing a  right  angled  triangle  whose  sides  are  three, 
four,  and  five  feet,  the  senses  first  perceive  the 
three  lines,  the  understanding  next  demonstrates — 
'^The  square  on  the  hypothenuse  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides.''  Lastly, 
reason  penetrates  into  the  inner  nature  of  mind 
and  recognizes  itself  as  the  energy  that  brought 
the  triangle  into  existence.  These  three  stages  of 
thinking  have  three  corresponding  doctrines  of  the 
world — sense-perception  is  atheistic;  understand- 
ing, pantheistic;   reason,  theistic. 

Reason   is   not   only  thought  thinking   thought^ 
but  thought  recognizing  itself  as  the  creative  energy 


202  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  the  world.     Cosmic  processes  are  not 

Reason  .  .       , 

mechanical  but  rational  and  spiritual. 
It  is  the  essential  nature  of  reason  to  manifest 
itself  in  the  objective  world,  and  in  the  whole  move- 
ment of  thought.  Reason  is  that  which  ratiocinates, 
that  which  syllogizes,  and  that  which  forms  the 
rational  basis  of  all  existence.  Thought  may  realize 
the  meaning  and  purpose  of  the  chair  but  reason 
not  only  grasps  the  creative  process  of  the  chair, 
but  thinks  its  own  process  as  the  thought  process 
constituting  the  chair.  Reason  is  the  great  unify- 
ing principle  of  the  world  made  manifest  in  natural 
law,  the  underlying  and  connecting  basis  of  human- 
ity, the  organizing  substratum  of  society,  the  creating 
force  of  the  school,  the  connecting  power  in  teaching, 
the  unitary  and  abiding,  causal  energy  in  mind, 
and  the  fundamental  basis  of  life. 

Intuition  is  an  immediate  grasping  of  the  totality 
of  things.     It  is  a  mediating  process  between  per- 
ceiving  and  thinking   and  seizes  the   universal   as 
self-determined.       I     may     perceive    the 

Intuition  ,..  .  i«i«i  •  •• 

chair,  image  it,  think  it,  but  to  mtuit  it, 
I  put  it  into  the  rational  order  of  the  world.  It  is 
by  means  of  this  intuiting  process  that  the  mind 
gains  an  insight  into  the  cycles  of  nature  and  life. 
By  means  of  the  bone  Cuvier  could  create  the  total 
animal.  The  animal  was  created  out  of  his  own 
inner  consciousness  through  a  clear  grasp  of  the 
totality  of  the  species.  The  intuitive  reason  in 
gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  objective  world  re- 
discovers man's  inner  life. 


THE  LAW  203 

"All  external  knowing  must  be  likewise  an  internal  knowing 
for  that  which  knows  is  the  ego,  and  that  which  is  known,  in  order 
to  be  known,  must  be  translated  into  the  ego. " 

The  mind  in  its  final  evolution  intuits  justice, 
the  beautiful,  the  good,  and  the  true  as  manifesta- 
tions of  the  divine.  The  psychological  process 
ends  in  the  Divine  Process,  and  education  is  made 
to  harmonize  with  religion.  Finite  mind  presup- 
poses an  Infinite  Mind,^  and  finite  thought  is  possible 
only  upon  the  presupposition  of  Infinite  Thought. 
Absolute  Spirit  is  the  ultimate  reality  of  the  world 
and  is  the  origin  and  inspiration  of  every  true 
thought,  every  pure  emotion  and  every  life  tendency. 

This  discussion  of  the  evolution  of  the  mind  is 
based  upon  the  psychological  doctrine  of  Denton 
J.  Snider.  Since  the  object  and  subject  are  unified 
in  thought,  this  text  makes  all  psychical  activity  a 
phase  of  the  thought  process.  The  purpose  of 
psychology  is  to  teach  the  student  to  recognize  in 
the  objective  world  a  spiritual  principle  akin  to 
his  own  soul,  and  to  analyze  the  process  by  which 
that  objective  energy  may  become  a  part  of  his 
mental  being. 

The  Law  Illustrated. — The  law  of  thinking 
is  beautifully  illustrated  in  teaching  arithmetic. 
The  evolution  of  the  thinking  process  harmonizes 
with  the  development  of  the  arithmetical 
process.  In  studying  an  object  the  mind 
first  thinks  quality  which  has  been  defined  as  the 
category  of  difference.  Every  quality  or  attribute 
of  a  thing  is  different  from  every  other.    In  gaining 


204  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

a  knowledge  of  an  object  the  mind  next  thinks 
quantity  which  has  been  called  the  category  of  indif- 
ference.    The  other  in  quantity  is  similar  to  itself. 

The  mind  first  thinks  the  quality  of  an  object, 
as  a  red  apple.  A  higher  power  of  mental  activity 
negates  or  thinks  away  quality  and  thinks  quantity. 
To  think  quantity  is,  therefore,  a  double  mental 
act.  Quality  is  seized  by  perceptive  thinking  and 
quantity,  by  thought  thinking.  In  the  former 
process  the  mind  is  dwelling  in  the  realm  of  phenome- 
non or  appearance  and  in  the  latter  process  the  mind 
seeks  the  noumenon  or  the  original  causal  energy. 

To  Think  Number. — Number  is  not  a  thing; 
not  a  quality;  not  a  figure;  not  a  mental  image  of 
an  object.  Number  is  an  abstract  idea  which  arises 
in  and  through  the  activity  of  mind.    Newton  says: 

"Number  is  the  abstract  ratio  of  one  quantity  to  another  of 
the  same  kind." 

John  Dewey  defines  number  as  always  express- 
ing ratio.     According  to  Euler: 

"Number  is  the  ratio  of  one  quantity  to  another  quantity 
taken  as  a  measure." 

Dr.  William  T.  Harris  expresses  the  same  fact 
by  saying: 

"  Number  trains  the  mind  into  the  consciousness  of  the  ratio  idea. " 

Here  are  three  pieces  of  paper;  one,  two  and  four 
inches  long.  The  two-inch  piece  compared  with 
the  four-inch  paper  is  one-half.  The  four  inch  is 
twice  the  two  inch.     But  comparing  the  two-inch 


THE  LAW  205 

paper  with  the  inch  piece  it  is  twice  as  long.  Since 
the  same  quantity  of  matter  is  now  called  one-half 
and  twOj  it  is  clearly  seen  that  number  is  not  quan- 
tity. It  is  as  vividly  shown  that  number  is  ratio, 
a  relation.  Number  can  be  grasped  by  the  thinking 
process  of  the  mind  only.  Thinking  is  just  that 
abstract  process  of  seeing  relations.  Knowledge 
results  from  the  establishment  of  relation.  Number 
is  a  thought  process  consisting,  however,  of  two 
phases;    a  sense  element  and  a  rational  element. 

The  Concrete  Method. — Since  the  mind  first 
thinks  quality  before  thinking  quantity  and  num- 
ber, it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  child  to  begin 
with  the  concrete  object.  The  abacus,  blocks, 
balls,  and  pictures  are  close  to  the  child's  mental 
life.  Correlated  with  the  number  lessons  should 
be  work  in  drawing,  language  and  composition. 
The  motor  factor  in  education  should  be  used  in 
number  work.  The  child  should  cut  out  pictures 
and  figures  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  problems 
in  addition  and  subtraction.  This  ^*busy  work'' 
creates  an  interest  in  arithmetic  and  finally  leads 
the  child  into  abstract  relations. 

The  child's  social  nature  should  be  trained  by 
having  a  group  of  children  to  measure  and  to  cut 
out  objects  of  different  lengths.  This  also  develops 
the  child's  quantitative  faculty  and  by  comparing 
the  size  of  objects  initiates  him  into  a  complete 
understanding  of  the  number  idea.  The  concrete 
must  be  dropped  just  as  soon  as  the  child's  mind  is 
able  to  act  upon  abstract  ideas. 


206  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  Grube  Method.  —  The  Grube  method 
teaches  the  four  fundamental  processes  of  arithmetic 
together.  It  is  based  upon  the  concrete  and 
aims  to  teach  thoroughness.  Grube  proceeded 
upon  the  Pestalozzian  principle  that  all  knowledge 
is  attained  by  the  mind  moving  from  the  simple 
to  the  difficult  and  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 
This  method  of  combining  figures  or  digits  cramps 
and  mechanizes  the  mind  and  cuts  off  self-activity. 
It  should  be  used  only  for  variety  sake  and  as  an 
introduction  to  the  Law  of  the  Signs: 

1.  +  and  —  should  be  used  as  they  come. 

2.  X  and  ^  should  also  be  used  as  they  come. 

3.  ±,  X  or  -7-  multiply  or  divide  before  adding  or  subtracting. 

The  Heuristic  Method. — This  method  develops 
the  child's  mental,  motor,  and  social  natures.  It 
is  the  method  of  finding  out,  inventing,  inspecting 
and  experimenting.  The  table  for  dry  measure  is 
easily  learned  experimentally.  Two  pints  of  sand 
fill  a  quart  measure.  Eight  quarts,  a  peck,  and 
four  pecks  a  bushel.  The  quantities  are  compared 
and  the  numbers  clearly  elucidated.  It  becomes 
a  part  of  the  child's  life  through  his  own  self  activity. 
The  foot,  yard,  rod  and  mile  should  be  actually 
measured  and  compared.  The  rules  for  square  and 
cube-root  should  also  be  thought  out  experimentally 
by  means  of  blocks.  The  Pythagorean  theorem  should 
be  proved  by  actual  measurement.  The  value  of 
3.1416  should  be  worked  out  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  becomes  an  ever  living  principle  in  mensuration. 


THE  LAW  207 

The  Speer  Method. — The  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  this  method  harmonizes  with  the  universal 
law  of  human  thinking.  By  comparing  quantities 
the  pupil  is  led  to  form  judgments  of  relative 
magnitude. 

''Number  learning  is  number  thinking,  and  rational  instruction 
in  number  must  recognize  the  nature  of  the  process  of  number 
thinking." 

Number  cannot  be  thought  then  by  objects 
merely,  but  by  comparing  magnitudes  and  ascer- 
taining relations.  The  child  should  compare  the 
actual  physical  object  to  see  relations,  and  secondly 
compare  the  images  of  objects.  Before  the  child 
understands  mathematical  relations,  he  must  be 
able  to  analyze,  synthesize,  separate  and  combine, 
and  finally  to  think  and  to  make  judgments. 
The  law  of  thinking  is  accurately  illustrated  by 
this  movement  of  the  mind  in  the  number  process 
from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 

Since  thinking  is  an  abstract  process  the  child 
gradually  arrives  at  that  stage  of  mental  equipment 
in  which  he  is  able  to  form  perfect  quantitative 
judgments.  In  thinking  or  making  comparisons 
some  constituent  unit  is  used.  This  may  be  an 
inch,  a  foot,  a  yard,  a  mile  or  any  definite  quan- 
tity. Suppose  a  pupil  compares  a  foot-ruler  with  a 
yard-stick.  By  the  analytico-synthetical  mental 
process,  the  one  is  found  to  be  three  times  the  other. 
He  is  thus  taught  the  idea  of  three  as  a  relation  and 
not  as  a  mechanical  process.     The  child  now  does 


208  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

for  himself  what  the  old  method  failed  to  do  for 
him;  namely,  think  number  as  an  abstract  relation. 
Counting  now  takes  on  a  phase  of  mental  activity. 
It  is  not  a  mere  verbal  naming  of  objects  but  an 
expression  of  the  relative  value  of  the  quantity. 
Rational  counting  is  a  process  of  ascertaining  the 
parts  of  a  whole.     The  constituent  must 

The  Thing         ^  .         .  ,       . 

Is  Its  be  seen  as  an  exact  quantitative  relation 

to  the  whole.  Forty  yards  cannot  be 
comprehended  only  in  its  relation  to  the  constituent 
unit  one  yard.  As  the  thinking  process  develops 
more  and  more,  the  mind  frees  itself  from  all  ob- 
jective reality.  The  child  must  see  the  yard  in  so 
many  concrete  relations,  that  it  finally  realizes  the 
yard  as  a  relation.  The  mind  must  be  gradually 
free  from  the  particular  and  to  think  number  as 
an  abstract  relation.  This  process  should  never 
be  mechanical,  memoriter,  but  always  that  of 
insight.  Number  thus  becomes  a  means  of  self- 
realization.  It  is  an  agent  by  which  the  child 
develops  its  own  self-activity.  To  learn  number 
is  to  follow  the  law  of  thinking: 

1.  Sense  experience  and  indefinite  quantitative  relations. 

2.  Exact  relations  of  physical  objects. 

3.  Seeing  quantitative  relations  as  images. 

4.  Freeing   the   relations    from   the   particular   and    mastering 
quantitative  thinking. 

5.  To  think  conditions  and  relations  and  to  apply  them  to 
mathematical  processes  of  thought. 

The  following  quotations  emphasize  this  method 
of  number  and  show  its  relation  to  human  thinking: 


THE  LAW  209 

"Thought  consists  in  the  establishment  of  relations.  There  can 
be  no  relation  established,  and,  therefore,  no  thought  framed 
when  one  of  the  related  terms  is  absent  from  consciousness." 

Herbert  Spencer. 
"Thin^ng  is  discerning  relations." 

Dr.  McCosh. 
"The  thing  is  its  relations." 

G.  H.  Lewis. 

"Consciousness    implies    the    recognition    of    Ukenesses    and 

differences." 

John  Fiske. 

"The  primary  element  of  all  thought  is  a  judgment  which  arises 

from  comparison." 

Francis  Bowen. 

"All  knowledge  results  from  the  establishment  of  relations  be- 
tween phenomena. " 

J.  B.  Stallo. 

"We    must  practice    in  thinking,  the   constant   object  of  all 

teaching." 

Charles  W.  Eliot. 


14 


XIV. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT 

The  mind  grows  through  certain  immanent 
principles  and  relations  which  underlie  experience 
and  which  constitute  the  very  essence  of  pure 
thought  itself.  These  abiding  forms  of  thought  he 
at  the  foundation  of  all  human  knowledge  by  con- 
ditioning the  thinking  and  knowing  process.  The 
thought  process  which  conceives  the  order  of  nature 
is  one  in  source  and  meaning  with  the  order  itself. 
If  object  relations  were  not  thought  relations  and 
there  were  no  common  element  between  the  two, 
then  there  would  be  no  knowledge  possible  of  the 
Conditions  thing.  lu  ordcr  for  knowledge  to  be 
Of  Growth  possible  and  the  mind  to  develop  there 
must  be  an  activity  of  mind  related  to  an  inherent 
activity  in  the  connected  order  of  things.  In  think- 
ing and  knowing  we  recognize  relations  which 
underlie  mental  life  and  which  translate  experience 
into  intelligible  forms.  In  terms  of  the  syllogism, 
the  real  is  a  relation;  a  relation  is  a  form  of  con- 
sciousness; therefore,  reality  is  rationality.  The 
facts  of  experience  are  related  and  form  a  bond  of 
union  in  and  through  a  spiritual  principle  which 
knits  things  together,  and  knits  mind  and  things 
together  in  the  thinking  of  them.  The  fundamental 
principle  which  enables  us  to  think  the  world,  is 
identical  to  that  which  conditions  the  world. 
210 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  211 

The  human  mind  in  thinking  does  not  create 
objective  existence,  yet  nothing  exists  for  the  think- 
ing mind  which  cannot  enter  thought  or  become 
a  thinkable  reality.  If  fact,  mind  is  possible  only 
in  unity  with  hidden  relations  out  of  which  it  grows 
and  in  which  it  exists.    It  has  been  well  said  that — 

"Nature  is  a  system  of  related  appearances  and  related  appear- 
ances are  impossible  apart  from  the  action  of  intelligence." 

It  is  a  self-evident  truth  that  the  outer  world, 
as  known  and  knowable,  is  a  system  of  objects 
related  to  a  thinking  mind  and  related  to  each 
other  through  their  relation  to  mind.  An  Relational 
object  exists  only  in  relation  to  a  subject  Activity 
and  when  this  relationship  is  wanting,  the  object 
for  thought  is  wanting.  The  abiding  self  is  the 
combining  principle  of  human  and  phenomenal 
existence  which  weaves  the  world  into  thinkable 
forms.  The  mind  in  thinking  searches  for  unity 
amid  variety,  for  a  fundamental  principle  embra- 
cing difference  and  reconciling  opposing  elements, 
and  finally  for  the  real  unity  of  thought,  the  philo- 
sophic insight,  and  that  rational  knowledge  which 
is  necessary  to  reveal  the  true  nature  of  the  world 
without  and  the  world  within. 

A  thinking  being  realizes  himself  in  that  which 
lies  outside  of  himself  by  sharing  in  the  life  and  the 
thought  of  the  literary,  scientific,  social  and  rational 
world  which  are  means  in  attaining  his  true  worth. 
The  cosmic  unities  called  laws  of  nature  which  the 
mind  grasps  in  all  scientific  research,  are  coherent 


212  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

System  of  relatloHS  not  foreign  to  mind  but  intrin- 
Reiations  sically  mental  in  their  nature.  If  mind  be 
intimately  connected  with  nature,  if  the  student  be 
rationally  related  to  the  facts  of  science,  he  is  still 
more  closely  identified  with  human  constructions 
and  mechanisms.  The  relations  in  the  violin  and 
piano  constitute  their  inner  essence  and  are  the 
product  of  the  formative  mind.  The  design  of  these 
musical  instruments  is  the  creative  principle  organ- 
izing the  material  into  relations  necessary  for  the 
production  of  musical  sound. 

It  is  generally  thought  that  the  reaper  is  made 
out  of  parts  rather  than  the  parts  made  from  the 
reaper.  The  reaper  is  constructed  of  wheels,  sickle, 
reel,  canvas,  chains,  bolts,  etc.,  but  the  fact  is, 
these  parts  are  built  out  of  the  idea — reaper.  The 
universal  creates  the  particular,  the  ideal  brings 
into  existence  the  real  and  what  is  now  a  machine 
was  originally  a  pulsating  thought.  The  truth  is, 
the  parts  of  the  reaper  are  relations  and 
the  reaper  itself  is  a  system  of  relations. 
The  sickle  is  found  in  the  reaper  and  the  reaper 
exists  in  the  sickle.  Relationship  makes  both 
reaper  and  sickle;  the  reaper  makes  the  sickle  as 
certainly  as  the  sickle  makes  the  reaper.  In  making 
a  close  study  of  the  reaper  we  conclude  that  the 
canvas,  sickle,  reel,  chains,  bolts,  etc.,  have  no 
reality  except  in  activity.  It  is  through  activity 
that  these  parts  fulfill  their  purpose ;  activity  means 
relationship.  The  sickle  realizes  its  purpose  only 
through  activity,  and  its  activity  is  possible  only 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  213 

in  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the  machine.  The 
relating  activity  which  binds  the  parts  into  an 
organic  unity  is  a  thinking,  creating  mind.  That 
which  brings  the  machine  into  existence  is  a  spiritual 
principle  and  to  think  the  reaper  is  to  think  the 
mind  externalized  in  the  material  and  to  ascertain 
the  thought  constituting  its  system  of  relations. 

The  Immanent  Principles  of  Knowing. — The  peda- 
gogical problem  is  to  determine  the  immanent  prin- 
ciples of  knowing  and  mind  growth,  and  to  trace  out 
the  underlying  conditions  of  human  know:ledge.  It 
is  necessary  to  discuss  the  universal  types  of  know- 
ing and  thinking  which  form  the  structure  of  in- 
telligence. Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  classifies  these 
types  into  three  dual  divisions,  i.e.,  subject  and  at- 
tribute, whole  and  part,  cause  and  effect.  From  each 
division  there  arise  certain  subordinate  principles 
which  are  also  necessary  to  articulate  experience. 

In  thinking  a  thing  the  mind  splits  it  into  sub- 
stantive and  adjective,  or  into  existence  and  the 
property  modifying  it.  The  primary  properties  of 
a  thing  are  those  essential  to  its  existence;  exten- 
sion and  resistance;  the  secondary  qualities  are 
those  given  by  the  senses.  In  order  to  illustrate 
the  relation  of  quality  and  object  we  analyze  sugar 
into  sweetness,  whiteness  and  hardness,  object  and 
These  isolated  attributes  are  our  own  Quality 
points  of  view  but  the  reality  of  sugar  is  found  in 
their  unity.  Furthermore  these  qualities  do  not 
exist  except  in  relation  to  each  other;  relation  pre- 
supposes quality  and  quality  is  nothing  apart  from 


214  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

relation.  To  get  the  truth  of  sugar  its  existence  must 
be  qualified  ideally,  as  sweet,  white,  hard.  Sugar 
has  existence  and  content  and  the  adjectives  imply 
a  separation  of  meaning  from  being.  According  to 
Anaxagoras  a  quality  is  an  idea  ''cut  off  with  a 
hatchet''  from  its  reality.  The  sugar  is  known 
only  through  its  qualities  and  its  qualities  are  known 
only  through  the  sugar. 

In  harmony  with  the  thought  of  the  poet-phi- 
losopher, quality  and  quantity  and  likeness  and 
difference  are  derived  from  substance  and  attribute. 
In  thinking,  quantity  logically  follows 
quality  and  the  pupil  passes  from  a 
study  of  the  adjective  to  a  study  of  number  and 
mathematical  science  in  general.  In  explaining  the 
relation  between  quality  and  quantity  Dr.  Borden 
P.  Bowne  writes: 

"Quantity  refers  to  an  order  of  likeness  and  difference  within 
qualitative  likeness,  and  the  changes  within  qualitative  constancy- 
are  quantitative. " 

Apples  and  wheat  being  qualitatively  unlike  can 
have  no  quantitative  value.  This  fundamental 
principle  of  thinking  is  necessary  to  the  pupil  in 
number  work  and  runs  through  the  whole  science 
of  mathematics.  Quantity  may  be  considered 
from  two  angles  of  view;  namely,  continuous  and 
discrete.  The  United  States,  E  Pluribus  Unum,  is 
an  example  of  continuous  quantity,  and  a  bushel  of 
apples,  discrete  quantity.  In  the  former,  emphasis 
is  put  upon  the  connecting  bond  of  the  parts  and 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  215 

in  the  latter,  upon  the  isolated  conditions  of  things. 
Number  exists  neither  in  quantity  nor  objects  but 
is  wholly  relational  in  nature.  The  mind  establishes 
the  constituent  unit  and  the  numerical  relations 
are  ascertained  by  a  process  of  comparison.  An 
exhaustive  analysis  of  number  would  include  a 
study  of  the  different  systems  of  notation  and  the 
transposition  of  the  scale,  as  the  decimal  to  the 
binary  and  the  octary  to  the  duodecimal. 

Growing  out  of  a  study  of  an  object  and  its 
attributes  are  two  necessary  modes  of  thinking — 
likeness  and  difference.  These  molds  of  conscious- 
ness are  the  essential  factors  in  human  understand- 
ing and  take  into  consideration  discrimination  and 
comparison.  As  noting  likenesses  and  differences 
is  purely  a  thought  process,  pupils  should  be  thor- 
oughly drilled  in  this  particular  movement  of  the 
mind.  In  arithmetic  they  should  see  the  likeness 
and  difference  between  a  triangle  and  rectangle, 
cone  and  cylinder,  prism  and  pyramid,  cube 
and  parallelopipedon,  etc.  In  geography  they 
should  be  drilled  in  discerning  the  likeness  Likeness  and 
and  difference  between  an  isthmus  and  a  difference 
strait,  a  desert  and  a  plain,  and  should  compare 
the  outlines,  products  and  peoples  of  different 
countries  and  should  study  geographical  facts  in 
general  from  the  standpoint  of  comparison.  The 
teacher  in  physiology  should  insist  that  pupils 
understand  the  likeness  and  difference  of  veins  and 
arteries,  inspiration  and  expiration,  secretion  and 
excretion,  etc.     Grammar  should  also  be  taught  in 


216  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

accordance  with  these  immanent  principles  by  not- 
ing the  likeness  and  difference  between  the  different 
kinds  of  sentences,  the  different  parts  of  speech  and 
figures  of  speech,  etc.  History  should  be  taught  by 
comparing  great  men,  great  events,  great  periods,  etc. 
The  second  coordinate  group  of  immanent  prin- 
ciples in  thinking  is  whole  and  part.  The  mind  in 
thinking  a  thing  grasps  the  object  as  an  individual 
Whole  whole,    analyzes    it    into    its    constituent 

And  Part  attributcs  aud  parts,  and  finally  reorgan- 
izes these  elements  into  the  original  whole.  Attri- 
butes are  inclusive,  parts  are  exclusive;  the  former 
are  inherent  in  the  thing,  the  latter  are  the  com- 
ponent elements  making  up  the  thing.  Some 
fundamental  principle  of  division  should  be  deter- 
mined upon  before  a  thing  is  thought  into  parts. 
After  the  basis  is  established  the  parts  should  be 
thought  in  order  completely.  The  Bird  of  Paradise 
has  a  partitive  as  well  as  an  attributive  existence. 
The  bird  may  be  thought  anatomically  into  head, 
trunk  and  extremities,  or  physiologically  into  the 
functions  necessary  to  its  existence.  Pupils  should 
be  drilled  in  analyzing  wholes  into  parts  and  in 
synthesizing  parts  into  wholes.  This  is  an  essential 
form  of  thought  and  enters  largely  into  all  school 
studies.  Closely  connected  with  whole  and  part  is 
One  and  auothcr  dual  type  of  thought— one  and 
^'^^  many.     This   dualism  of  thought   would 

ask  the  questions — Is  the  school  one  or  many? 
Is  the  world  one  or  many?  These  are  pertinent, 
pedagogical  questions  and  lead  the  student  into  a 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  217 

discussion  of  monism  and  pluralism  from  both  the 
educational  and  world  standpoint. 

The  highest  dual  form  of  thought  is  cause  and 
effect  which  explains  the  antecedent  condition  of 
things.  There  are  certain  invariable  sequences  of 
phenomenal  and  educational  facts  that  cause  and 
depend  upon  a  primal  principle  for  their  ^^^^ 

existence.  There  are  two  kinds  of  causes  known  in 
human  thinking — efficient  causes  and  final  causes. 
Final  cause  sets  forth  the  end  or  aim  of  an  action. 
Ejfficient  cause  brings  about  certain  changes  which 
realize  an  end.  In  a  grain  of  corn  there  is  a  causal 
energy  which  purposes  an  ideal  corn-stalk.  The 
soil,  moisture,  sunlight  and  air  constitute  the  effi- 
cient cause  which  has  the  power  of  converting  the 
original  force  into  a  perfect  plant.  In  the  domain 
of  human  activity  final  cause  governs  efficient 
cause.  The  final  cause  of  the  Panama  Canal  origi- 
nated in  the  fertile  minds  of  our  great  statesmen. 
The  efficient  is  seen  in  the  agencies,  pick,  machinery, 
laborers  and  money  which  have  the  power  of 
accomplishing  the  final  purpose.  Dr.  William  T. 
Harris  writes: 

"We  notice  two  important  steps  in  self -activity;  the  first,  the 
formation  of  an  ideal  or  purpose,  and  the  second,  the  transformation 
of  the  real  into  the  ideal." 

The  reign  of  law  has  had  a  tendency  to  destroy 
the  reign  of  purpose.  Causal  energy  establishes  a 
uniformity  in  nature  called  natural  law.  Things 
exist  through  mechanical  and  evolutionary  forces 


218  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

or  through  purposive  processes.  The  educational 
world  is  purely  purposive  while  the  physical  world 
is  purposive  and  developmental.  To  think  the 
purpose  of  the  school  or  the  world  is  to  gain  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  hidden  power  or  origin.  To  think  the 
purpose  of  a  hat  is  to  become  conscious  of  the 
reason  for  its  existence.  The  hat  is  the  objectifica- 
tion  of  the  self  and  is  not  wholly  material  nor 
Purpose  wholly  thought,  but  a  concrete  unity  of 
And  Means  ^^ie  two.  To  study  the  hat  as  a  material 
thing  accords  with  the  first  phase  in  the  develop- 
ment of  thought,  but  to  study  the  hat  as  a  thought 
process  is  to  enter  the  second  stage  of  mental  growth. 
The  highest  stage  of  thought  activity  takes  cogni- 
zance of  the  duality  in  unity  and  attains  the  true 
knowledge  of  the  object.  It  is  a  valuable  exercise 
to  trace  out  the  thought  found  in  manufactured 
and  natural  objects.  The  evolution  of  the  hat 
process  may  be  traced  out  in  the  following  manner. 
Some  one  conceived  that  a  covering  for  the  head 
would  be  beneficial  in  protecting  it  from  heat  and 
cold.  This  individual  thought  out  a  condition  in 
which  the  head  could  not  be  exposed.  He  con- 
trasted the  real  condition  with  the  ideal  and  lastly, 
created  the  thought  of  the  hat  which  takes  on 
external  form.  The  spiritual  hat  and  the  material 
hat  form  a  concrete  unity  called  "hat.''  To  study 
the  eye  as  an  organ  of  sight  is  to  retrace  purpose  in 
the  Infinite  Mind.  This  is  a  more  difiicult  process 
and  the  thinker  must  choose  for  himself  the  evolu- 
tionary or  the  teleological  doctrine  of  the  world. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  219 

It  is  impossible  to  think  a  thing  without  think- 
ing it  as  fixed  or  changing.  The  house  must  be 
thought  as  it  now  exists  or  in  the  process  of  be- 
coming through  a  causal  energy  and  a  Fixed  and 
material  means.  Old  Ironsides  may  be  changing 
thought,  as  she  now  lies  in  Boston  harbor  or  she 
may  be  thought  in  the  process  of  construction  in 
1795.  To  think  a  thing  as  fixed  is  description; 
to  think  a  thing  as  changing  is  narration.  We 
describe  Old  Ironsides  as  she  now  is  and  narrate  the 
process  of  her  construction.  Again,  every  individual 
is  derived  from  a  universal,  and  every  universal 
is  housed  in  an  individual.  The  table  is  derived 
from  some  universal  idea  or  conception 

TCI         •T«i        !•         1  Individual 

of  table.     If  the  mdividual  is  destroyed  And 

the  universal  may  create  others  indefi- 
nitely. If  the  universal  ceases  to  be  then  there  is 
no  individual.  We  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  individ- 
ual through  sense  perception,  but  the  universal  is 
known  only  through  thought  or  reason.  The 
individual  that  is  first  perceived  is  finally  grasped 
with  the  universal  in  it.  The  mind  passes  from 
the  individual  to  the  universal  and  from  the  uni- 
versal back  to  the  individual. 

The  when  and  the  where  are  rooted  in  the  very 
nature  of  thought  and  knowledge,  and  are  indispen- 
sable types  of  mental  activity  in  all  processes  of 
knowing.     Nothing   can   exist   except   in  Time 

time  and  place,  and  nothing  can  be  AndPiace 
thought  except  at  some  time  and  at  some  place. 
These  two  forms  of  consciousness  lie  at  the  founda- 


220  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

tion  of  all  biography  and  history,  and  are  the 
essential  questions  of  inquiry  in  geology  and  other 
sciences.  These  patterns  of  thought  are  used  daily 
and  unconsciously  in  all  school  work,  and  their 
value  is  not  appreciated  and  understood  by  the 
ordinary  thinker. 

In  the  development  of  the  educational  process, 
subject  and  object  are  twain — yet  resolvable  into 
each  other.  Unless  a  poem  can  be  resolved  into 
mind  terms  it  cannot  be  learned  arid  has  no  value 
in  the  education  of  the  individual.  Knowledge  is 
possible  only  in  the  unification  of  the  mind  with 
Subject  "the  thing  the  mind  thinks.  All  thought 
And  Object  movcs  between  subject  and  object  which 
are  essentially  distinct  from  each  other  yet  in  their 
unity  lies  all  knowledge.  No  thinking  is  possible 
without  an  idea  and  an  idea  implies  that  there  has 
been  a  separation  made  between  the  object  and  its 
meaning.  A  judgment  adds  an  adjective  to  an 
object  and  qualifies  it  ideally.  In  thinking  we 
arrive  at  the  nature  of  the  object  and  find  it  to 
exist,  in  the  last  analysis,  in  a  thought  process. 

Every  appearance  involves  a  reality  and  every 
phenomenon,  a  noumenon  or  thing-in-itself.  If  this 
dualism  is  denied  then  one  element  resolves 
IndleauTy  itsclf  iuto  the  othcr.  The  appearance 
of  a  work  of  art  belongs  to  its  reality,  and 
its  reality  is  grasped,  not  sensuously,  but  through 
processes  of  thought.  Nature  is  the  appearance  or 
manifestation  of  the  Absolute  which  Spencer  says 
is  unknowable,  but  which  Tennyson  says  is  attained 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  221 

not  by  reason  but  by  faith.  The  objective  school  is 
the  appearance,  but  its  reality  lies  beneath  the  phe- 
nomenal existence  in  a  spiritual  unity.  The  mechan- 
ical means  used  in  teaching  represents  its  phenomenal 
side  while  soul  unity  is  the  real  teaching  itself. 

Activity  is  a  process  of  self-realization  and  is  the 
power  which  transforms  the  real  into  the  ideal.  When 
the  is  is  changed  to  the  ought-to-be  the  indi-  Real 

vidual  has  acquired  a  fresh  adjective  and  a  ^°^  ^^^^^ 
new  increment  of  life.  It  is  through  activity  that  the 
pupil  attains  the  consciousness  of  his  own  freedom. 

Washington  Monument. — To  make  a  summary 
of  these  immanent  principles  of  knowing,  a  brief 
study  is  made  of  the  Washington  Monument.  The 
student  first  thinks  it  as  an  object  of  admiration 
possessing  adamantine  qualities.  The  quantity  of 
material  used  in  its  construction  was  donated  by 
the  States  and  different  nations  of  the  world.  It 
is  555  feet  high  and  is  the  tallest  shaft  in  the  United 
States.  It  may  be  compared  to  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 
ment; there  is  a  likeness  in  structure  and  purpose, 
but  a  difference  in  size  and  commemoration.  In 
thinking  the  Monument  the  mind  first  grasps  it  as 
a  whole  and  then  analyzes  it  into  its  constituent 
'parts.  The  many  stones  are  synthesized  into  one 
shaft  and  are  transformed  into  knowledge  and 
patriotism.  The  spirit  of  American  patriotism  is 
its  final  cause,  whereas,  the  rock  and  other  material 
constitute  its  efficient  cause.  The  means  used  in  the 
construction  of  this  Monument  are  insignificant 
compared  with  the  purpose  which  it  commemorates. 


222  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  Monument  may  be  thought  as  fixed  or  as 
changing;  changing  from  its  ideal  to  its  realization, 
or  fixed  definitely  near  the  Potomac  River.  Scien- 
tists tell  us  that  its  inclination  varies  with  the 
seasons.  The  universal  Monument  conceived  in  the 
minds  of  the  American  people  is  housed  in  an 
individual  structure  which  perpetuates  the  memory 
of  George  Washington.  Washington  City  is  natu- 
rally the  most  desirable  place  for  its  location.  The 
elements  of  time  considered  in  a  study  of  the  Monu- 
ment are  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  by  President 
Polk,  July  4,  1848,  the  placing  of  the  capstone 
December  6,  1884,  and  the  dedication  February  21, 
1885.  The  Monument  is  an  object  of  inspiration 
and  patriotic  knowledge  to  every  thinking  subject 
struggling  to  realize  liberty  and  freedom.  Its 
appearance,  although  grand  and  sublime,  cannot  be 
compared  in  importance  with  its  ultimate  reality. 
The  Monument  in  its  solemn  stateliness  is  a  national 
incentive  in  transforming  the  real  American  into 
an  ideal  citizen.  To  make  an  exhaustive  study  of 
these  fundamental  principles  of  knowing  is  to 
attain  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  Monument. 

The  individual  finally  finds  himself  reflected  in 
the  Monument  and  transforms  it  into  a  type  of  his 
own  life.  As  Goethe  puts  it,  the  thinker  uses  the 
Esthetic  individual  to  set  forth  some  universal 
Freedom  truth.  Hc  sccs  back  of  the  material 
thing  a  spiritual  law  which  is  a  reflection  of  his 
better  self.  He  finds  himself  in  the  Monument  and 
translates  the  Monument  into  himself.     He  is  now 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  223 

on  the  borderland  between  the  ideal  and  the  real 
and  at  last  translates  himself  into  higher  and  nobler 
life.  Such  a  study  of  an  object  stirs  up  the  pupil's 
emotional  nature  and  arouses  within  him  a  feeling 
of  effort  to  grow  in  thought  and  life.  His  total 
life  is  made  to  feel  the  pulse-beat  of  the  world  and  he 
is  inspired  with  all  that  is  true,  beautiful  and  good. 

To  Think  the  Class.  —  An  individual  object 
cannot  be  thought  without  seeing  it  in  relation  to 
a  class.  The  class  is  ascertained  from  the  world 
of  reality  by  observation,  comparison,  contrast, 
abstraction  and  generalization.  Classification  is 
an  important  element  in  mind  development,  for 
we  are  able  to  master  nature  only  by  content 
binding  it  into  classes.  The  content  of  And  Extent 
a  class  is  the  sum  of  the  attributes  found  in  the 
individual  composing  it.  The  extent  of  a  class  is 
the  number  of  individuals  found  in  the  content. 
It  is  impossible  to  think  the  content  of  a  class 
without  thinking  the  extent.  Content  and  extent 
are  dynamical  relations.  The  greater  the  content 
the  less  the  extent,  and  vice  versa,  A  good,  mellow, 
red  apple  has  greater  content,  but  less  extent  than 
a  red  apple.  There  is  an  exact  qualitative  and 
quantitative  relationship  existing  between  content 
and  extent.  To  think  the  qualitative  is  definition; 
to  think  the  quantitative  is  division.  One  is  conno- 
tation, the  other,  denotation;  one,  intension,  the 
other,  extension. 

Principle  of  Definition. — The  process  of  denot- 
ing   the    common    qualities    belonging    to  a  class 


224  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

is  definition.  Every  definition  has  a  major  genus 
and  differentia.  In  the  definition — A  triangle  is  a 
polygon  of  three  sides,  ''polygon'^  is  the  major 
genus,  and  **of  three  sides,''  the  differentia.  Every 
logical  definition  unfolds  the  essence  of  a  notion 
by  using  a  universal  and  particular  term.  It  is  a 
process  of  thought  by  which  the  mind  unifies  the 
individual  and  universal.  It  should  be  adequate, 
affirmative,  perspicuous  and  not  tautological. 
Jevon  gives  the  following  rules: 

1.  A  definition  should  state  the  essential  attribute  of  the  species 
defined. 

2.  A  definition  must  not  contain  the  name  defined. 

3.  The    definition    must    be    exactly    equivalent    to 
D^nit^ioa        the  species  defined. 

4.  A  definition   must  not    be   expressed   in  obscure, 
figurative  or  ambiguous  language. 

5.  A  definition  must  not  be  negative  where  it  can  be  affirmative. 

Principle  of  Division. — To  think  the  quan- 
titative, the  extent  of  a  class,  is  division.  It  is  a 
process  of  thinking  unity  into  diversity.  The 
mind  cannot  think  extent  without  thinking  content. 
As  the  principle  of  division  is  so  important  in 
teaching,  in  outlining  subjects,  and  in  classifying 
facts,  the  following  rules  from  Minto  are  given: 

1.  Every  division  is  made  on  the  groimd  of  difference  in  some 
attribute  common  to  all  the  members  of  the  whole  to  be  divided. 

2.  In  a  perfect  division  the  subdivisions  or  species  are  mutually 
Rules  of  exclusive. 

Division  3_  The  classes  in  any  scheme  of  division  should   be 

of  coordinate  rank. 

4.  The  basis  of  division  should  be  an  attribute  admitting  of 
impori^ant  differences. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  225 

To  strengthen  the  mind  in  this  form  of  thought, 
the  pupil  should  be  drilled  in  making  outlines  and 
systematic  subdivisions  of  an  object.  An  outline 
is  the  arrangement  of  notes  in  logical 
order.  It  is  valuable  in  making  studies 
systematic,  in  cultivating  the  power  of  classifica- 
tion, in  creating  interest,  and  in  aiding  in  original 
investigation. 

PRINCIPLES  IN  OUTLINING. 

1.  No  heading  without  a  coordinate  topic. 

2.  Coordinates  must  be  placed  in  a  vertical  column. 

3.  Subordinates  are  placed  underneath  and  to  the  right. 

4.  Themes  are  not  indexed. 

The  different  methods  of  outlining  are  the  brace, 
position,  letter,  tabular,  numerical,  composite  and 
exponential.  The  following  is  an  example  of  the 
exponential  system  of  outlining: 

FOOD.  2'.  By  the  gastric  juice  and 

1^  Starch.  pepsin. 

1^.  Changed  in  the  mouth.  3'.  Into  albumenose. 

2^.  By  the  saliva.  4^  Absorbed  in  the  stomach. 

3^.  Into  grape  sugar.  3^  Fats. 

4^.  Absorbed    in  the  mouth  V.  Changed  in  the  duodenum, 

and      along     the      alimentary  2^.  By   the   pancreatic  juice 

canal.  and  bile. 

2^  Albumen.  3^  Into  an  emulsion  of  fats. 

1^  Changed  in  the  stomach.  4^.  Absorbed  in  the  intestines. 

The  pupil  should  study  by  outlining  rather  than 
by  an  outline.  We  are  told  that  science  is  knowledge 
properly  classified.  Outlining  assists  the  pupil  to 
see  relations  in  subject-matter.    It  assists  the  mind 

15 


226  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

in  so  classifying  the  facts  of  a  subject  as  to  make 
it  more  easily  learned.  The  logical  order  of  the 
subject  should  be  made  to  fit  to  the  psychological 
order  of  the  growing  mind.  Outlining  is  a  process 
of  adjusting  subject-matter  to  mind.  The  thought 
in  the  thing  is  made  to  correspond  to  the  law  in 
the  mind. 

The  Logical  Syllogism. — There  is  nothing  that 
will  assist  the  thinking  mind  in  its  growth  and 
development  more  than  a  study  and  application  of 
the  logical  syllogism.  The  syllogism  is  a  movement 
of  the  mind  from  the  individual  through  the  par- 
ticular to  the  universal,  or  from  the  particular 
through  the  individual  to  the  universal,  or  lastly, 
from  the  individual  through  universal  to  the  par- 
ticular. The  first  movement  is  called  deduction, 
the  second,  induction,  the  third,  identification. 

Deduction.  Therefore,   Edison   is  an   in- 
All  inventors  labor  diligently,  ventor. 
Edison  is  an  inventor,  Enthymeme. 
Therefore,  Edison  labors  dili-  All  inventors  labor  dihgently, 
gently.  Therefore,  Edison  labors  dili- 

Induction.  gently. 

Edison  is  an  inventor,  Sorites, 

Edison  labors  diligently,  Hoosiers  are  Americans, 

Therefore,  all  inventors  labor  Americans  are  men, 

diligently.  Men  are  rational  animals, 

Identification.  Rational  animals  have  minds, 

An  inventor  labors  diligently,  Therefore,      Hoosiers      have 

Edison  labors  diligently,  minds. 

The  syllogism  consists  of  a  major  premise,  a 
minor  premise  and  conclusion.  The  syllogisms  are 
organically  related.     The  three  movements  of  the 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  227 

mind  are  interrelated  processes.  Each 
syllogism  depends  upon,  and  is  related  to 
the  other  two.  An  enthymeme  is  a  syllogism  with 
one  premise  unexpressed.  The  common  sorites 
consists  of  a  number  of  syllogisms  so  combined  that 
the  predicate  of  the  first  premise  becomes  the  sub- 
ject of  the  next  until  finally  the  predicate  of  the  last 
is  predicated  of  the  subject  of  the  first. 

The  Syllogism  in  Thinking. — The  mind  first 
recognizes  an  object  by  the  second  figure  of  the 
syllogism  (S  is  M,  P  is  M,  therefore,  S  is  P).  This 
is  an  act  of  apperception  which  takes  place  through 
some  common  mark  that  belongs  to  both  the  ob- 
ject and  the  class.  As  soon  as  an  object  is  recog- 
nized by  one  of  its  marks,  sense-perception  uses 
the  first  figure  of  the  syllogism  (M  is  P,  S  is  M, 
therefore,  S  is  P)  to  reinforce  the  first  Figures  of 
act  of  the  mind  and  to  look  for  other  ASyiiogism 
marks  which  previous  experience  declares  to  belong 
to  the  object.  In  this  figure  of  the  syllogism  the 
individual  enlarges  his  experience  through  the 
stored-up  knowledge  of  the  race.  By  means  of  the 
third  figure  of  the  syllogism  (M  is  P,  M  is  S,  therefore, 
S  is  P)  the  mind  grasps  classes,  species,  genera,  and 
universals.  This  form  of  the  syllogism  gives  definition 
because  it  unites  the  universal  with  the  individual. 

Hegel  defines  the  syllogism  as  the  unity 
of   the   judgment   and    the    notion.      He 
shows  that  every  form  of  life  is  a  syllogistic  proc- 
ess.    His  universal  is   the    creative    energy    found 
in   species.     We   do   not   construct  a  syllogism,  it 


228  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

really  constructs  us.  It  traces  out  the  process  of  the 
Absolute  as  manifested  in  the  world.  The  world 
is  a  manifestation  of  the  universal  by  means  of  the 
particular  in  the  form  of  a  concrete  individual. 
It  is  the  nature  of  thought  to  bind  these  three  ideas 
into  one  syllogistic  process.  Thought  or  reason 
has  an  inherent  tendency  to  express  itself  in  the 
form  of  a  syllogism.  The  underlying  process  of 
both  nature  and  mind  is  a  syllogism. 

The  Development  Illustrated. — The  development 
of  the  thinking  process  may  be  illustrated  by 
a  study  of  method  in  geography.  Geography  is  a 
study  of  the  earth  in  relation  to  man. 
A  study  of  the  earth  may  be  geology, 
mineralogy,  paleontology,  chemistry  or  astronomy. 
A  study  of  man  may  be  biology,  physiology,  biog- 
raphy, history,  ethnology  or  anthropology.  The 
earth  studied  in  relation  to  man  is  geography. 
To  study  corn,  wheat  and  cotton  is  botany.  To 
study  these  in  relation  to  man  is  geography.  To 
study  a  fact  in  geography  is  necessarily  a  dual  act. 
It  must  be  thought  jper  se  and  in  relationship  with 
man.  The  geographical  is  not  geological,  meteoro- 
logical, zoological,  botanical,  historical,  political, 
but  a  study  of  all  these  facts  in  relation  to  man's 
life,  development  and  higher  existence. 

Geography  is  divided  into — 

Academically  Speaking.  Professionally  Speaking. 

1.  Home  Geography.  1.  Observational  Geography. 

2.  Elementary  Geography.  2.  Representative  Geography. 

3.  Physical  Geography.  3.  Descriptive   Geography. 

4.  Physiography.  4.  Rational  Geography. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  229 

The  academic  division  is  based  upon  natural 
relationships.  The  professional  classification  is 
based  entirely  upon  mind  processes.  The  teacher 
must  understand  the  logic  of  the  subject  and  the 
psychology  of  the  mind;  world  relations  and  mind 
relations. 

Observational  Geography. — The  Committee  of 
Ten  says  the  purpose  of  observational  geography 
is — a.  To  develop  the  power  and  habit  of  geograph- 
ical observation;  h,  to  give  the  pupil  true  and 
vivid  basal  ideas;  c,  to  arouse  a  spirit  of  inquiry 
and  a  thirst  for  geographical  knowledge. 

Pupils  should  be  taken  into  the  woods  and  fields 
and  led  to  observe  hills,  valleys,  rivers  and  agencies 
producing  changes,  such  as  floods,  winds  and  rains. 
Children  should  also  have  an  opportunity  to  study 
humanistic  geography  such  as  docks,  steamboats, 
railroads,  interurban  traction  lines,  etc.  By  obser- 
vation and  experimentation  pupils  may  notice  the 
daily  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
(Foucault  Experiment)  and  the  change  ^o  conSptlon 
of  the  sun  during  the  different  seasons. 
Pupils  should  be  taught  to  notice  the  changing  of 
the  stars,  the  Pleiades,  the  Dipper,  Jupiter,  Venus, 
Orion,  etc.,  and  to  note  the  phases  of  the  moon. 

Encourage  each  pupil  on  a  geographical  excursion 
to  bring  in  some  product  of  nature  and  to  study 
its  geographical  significance.  Geography  should 
be  a  natural  outgrowth  from  nature  study  which 
is  the  child's  first  outlook  on  his  natural  environ- 
ments.   It  is  a  transition  from  the  perception  of  the 


230  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

real  to  the  conception  of  the  ideal.  It  is  a  process 
of  thought  thinking  thought  as  manifested  in  the 
outer  world.  There  are  just  two  factors  in  thinking 
geography,  the  world  without  and  the  world  within. 
It  is  a  process  of  translating  the  thought  of  the 
Infinite  Mind  into  the  thought  of  the  finite  mind. 

Representative  Geography. — After  impression 
comes  expression;  after  observation,  artistic  repre- 
sentation in  the  form  of  models,  maps,  sketches, 
charts,  etc.  An  impression  becomes  a  fixed  product 
through  expression.  The  impression  is  made  more 
vivid  and  clear  through  representation.  The  child 
is  now  induced  into  the  inner  life  of  a  map  and  to 
think  its  creative  energy.  He  makes  a  realistic 
sketch  of  what  he  saw  in  observational  geography. 
The  first  effort  at  map  drawing  should  be  topo- 
graphical and  free-hand.  The  form  of  land  in  three 
dimensions  brings  into  use  the  moulding  board. 
Maps  should  finally  be  drawn  to  an  exact  scale. 
This  work  bridges  the  chasm  between  geography 
and  surveying  and  civil  engineering. 

Descriptive  Geography. — The  pupil  is  now 
directed  to  a  study  of  the  observations  and  repre- 
sentations of  others.  No  student  can  observe  all 
the  surface  of  the  earth  and  hence  must  study  the 
maps  and  representations  of  expert  geographers 
who  have  made  a  life  study  of  the  geographical 
process. 

Descriptive  geography  gradually  merges  into 
narrative  geography.  The  fundamental  geograph- 
ical process  is  change.    The  expert  geographer  looks 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  231 

into  these  processes  of  nature  and  notices  changes 
and  cycles  of  activity.  The  essential  process  in 
geography  is  evolution,  a  becoming,  a  change,  a 
cycle,  a  return-to-itself,  a  force  and  energy  which 
is  constantly  struggling  for  a  more  perfect  cosmic 
realization. 

Rational  Geography. — The  movement  of  mind 
in  geography  is  observation,  representation,  de- 
scription, and  rationalization.  At  this  stage  of 
geographical  thinking  cause  and  effect  relations 
should  be  carefully  studied.  The  student  is  now- 
prepared  to  investigate  Laplace's  Nebular  Hypoth- 
esis. It  would  also  be  interesting  to  look  into  the 
various  philosophical  theories  of  the  origin  of  the 
world,  as  water,  fire,  air,  and  the  unlimited.  Ra- 
tional geography  is  analytic,  and  seeks  to  explain 
the  classification  of  geographical  facts  and  the 
causes  of  geographical  phenomena. 

The  thinking  process  is  developed  by  the  mind 
coming  into  contact  with  the  objective  world  as 
manifested  in  geography.  Geography  develops  per- 
ceptive thinking,  memory  thinking,  imaginative 
thinking,  and  lastly,  thought  thinking.  Rational 
geography  is  a  study  of  the  thought  processes  as 
embodied  in  nature  and  interacting  upon  man. 
It  investigates  the  thought  in  the  thing  and  attempts 
to  adjust  it  to  the  growing  mind.  The  fact  in  the 
thing  may  be  a  volcano  with  its  crater,  lava,  cinders, 
gases,  cause,  number,  classification  and  location. 
This  method  in  the  subject  is  to  be  adjusted  and 
harmonized  with  the  method  in  the  mind. 


232  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Thinking  Developed  in  Physiology. — While  the 
thinking  process  may  be  developed  in  studying 
any  subject,  it  is  especially  interesting  to  trace  the 
growth  of  thought  power  in  learning  and  teaching 
anatomy,  physiology  and  hygiene.  To  study  and 
Human  think  the  human  body  is  to  discover  the 
Body  inner   force    of   the    human    constitution. 

The  ultimate  objective  categories,  force,  cause,  law, 
etc.,  are  made  subjective  forms  of  thought.  The 
mind  grasps  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  by  coming  in 
contact  with  the  thought  found  in  the  human  body. 
The  thought  in  the  organism  is  a  common  term  to 
the  thought  in  the  mind,  and  hence  is  thinkable, 
knowable,  because  there  is  something  objective  to 
which  the  mind  can  unify  itself.  The  true  scientist 
must  be  psychological  and  see  in  all  objective  reality 
a  thought  process.  The  final  purpose  in  science  is  to 
trace  out  the  Absolute  Idea  which  is  not  only  the 
origin  of  all  human  beings,  but  of  all  facts,  prin- 
ciples, forces,  causes  and  laws  of  existence  in  general. 
The  Science  of  Otology. — To  understand  how 
the  mind  grows  and  develops  in  studying  the  science 
of  physiology,  an  intense  study  is  made  of  the 
human  ear.  Applying  the  categories  of  thought, 
the  ear  is  divided  into  pinna,  tympanum 
and  labyrinth.  The  parts  of  the  pinna 
are  helix,  antihelix,  tragus,  antitragus,  concha  and 
lobus.  The  tympanum  is  divided  into  the  ossicles, 
(malleus,  incus,  stapes,  orbiculare),  membrani  tym- 
pani,  openings,  and  muscles.  The  labyrinth  is 
analyzed  into  vestibule,  otoliths,  semicircular  canals 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  233 

(perilymph,  endolymph),  cochlea  (fenestra  rotunda 
and  fenestra  ovalis,  modiolis  and  organs  of  Corti) 
and  the  auditory  nerve  (cochlear  and  vestibular 
branches).  The  first  movement  of  thought  reveals 
parts  and  the  second  mental  movement  interprets 
attributes. 

The  thought-relations  constituting  the  ear  also 
include  a  study  of  its  form,  size,  color,  resistance, 
protection,  cause  and  effect,  time  and  place,  like- 
ness and  difference,  and  purpose  or  function.  The 
function  of  hearing  has  its  purpose  deeply  rooted 
in  human  life.  It  is  impossible  to  think  function 
without  first  thinking  the  thing  to  functionate, 
and  hence  a  study  of  anatomy  should  precede  a 
study  of  physiology.  A  knowledge  of  hygiene  is 
necessary  to  understand  how  the  parts  function  in 
a  healthy  condition. 

The  function  of  the  pinna  is  to  convey  sound  by 
conduction  and  convection  to  the  auditory  canal. 
There  is  also  an  added  meaning  or  thought  in  the 
ridges   and   furrows   of  the   external  ear.  Design 

The  design  is  to  give  greater  exposed  in  Nature 
surface  and  to  receive  more  accurately  the  vibra- 
tions from  various  directions.  The  thought  of  the 
auditory  canal  is  to  give  greater  intensity  of  sound 
and  to  afford  protection  to  the  membrani  tympani. 
This  membrane  receives  the  vibrations  and  trans- 
mits them  to  the  auditory  nerve  by  means  of  the 
chain  of  bones.  A  further  design  is  seen  in  the 
function  of  the  Eustachian  tube  which  equalizes 
the    atmospheric    pressure    on    both    sides    of    the 


234  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

membrani  tympani.  The  purpose  of  the  internal 
ear  can  be  understood  only  by  a  careful  study  of 
means  to  ends.  It  is  thought  that  the  cochlea 
determines  the  pitch  and  the  semicircular  canals 
the  direction  from  which  sound  comes. 

A   close  study   of  the   mechanism   and   function 
of  the  ear  reveals  the  fact  that  it  is  a  delicate  ap- 
paratus to  aid  the  individual  in  securing  spiritual 
freedom.      Every    part,    every    attribute. 

Freedom  .  ..,.,.. 

every  function  is  rooted  m  a  divine  pur- 
pose which  controls  and  works  out  the  design  of 
the  whole  organism.  The  teleological  view  sup- 
plemented by  the  developmental  hypothesis  is  the 
true  explanation  of  anatomical  parts  and  physio- 
logical processes. 

Hygiene  should  as  logically  follow  physiology  as 
physiology  should  be  based  upon  anatomy.  To 
reverse  these  subjects  as  found  in  some  text-books 
is  to  contradict  the  laws  of  human  think- 
ing. For  the  ear  to  fulfill  the  purpose  of 
its  existence,  it  must  be  kept  in  a  healthy  condition. 
Earache,  otorrhoea,  otalgia  and  other  unnatural 
conditions  of  the  ear  tend  to  subvert  the  purpose  or 
original  design  of  the  ear.  Hygiene  is  a  necessary 
study  from  a  physical  point  of  view,  but  it  is  doubly 
important  in  understanding  the  great  purpose 
running  through  the  whole  organism. 

To  think  the  ear  is  not  merely  to  know  its  struc- 
ture, function  and  health,  but  to  gain  a  clear  idea 
of  its  design,  law,  purpose,  which  are  infinite  in 
their  origin.     The  mind  in  its  process  of  develop- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  235 

ment  parallels  the  eternal  purpose  of  the  organism 
and  searches  out  those  eternal  truths  coextensive 
with  its  origin.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how 
thought  thinks  thought  in  human  constructed 
knowledge  but  to  enter  the  workshop  of  nature  and 
trace  out  and  understand  creative  principles  is  a 
more    difficult   problem.      The    design    of         ^     . 

.         .  .    .  Creation 

the  ear  is  to  assist  in  spiritual  freedom.  And 

rm  1    •  11  •  1  •     1  •  1  Evolution 

The  ultimate  problem  m  thmkmg  the  ear 
is  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  creative  purpose 
of  the  organism  and  to  follow  this  final  cause  through 
processes  of  development.  Once  more  we  are 
brought  to  the  fundamental  conclusion  that  the 
mind  in  its  growth  and  development  parallels  the 
growth  and  development  of  natural  objects. 

A  final  knowledge  of  the  automobile  is  arrived 
at  by  ascertaining  the  creative  idea  and  then  tra- 
cing that  thought  through  its  various  stages  of 
evolution.  To  gain  a  final  knowledge  of  the  ear, 
the  mind  first  seizes  the  ear  idea  and  then  traces 
this  thought  down  through  the  developing  human 
being  until  it  attains  its  freedom  in  and  through 
the  organism  studied. 

The  Highest  Psychological  Development. — The 
highest  function  of  the  intuitive  reason  is  to 
commune  with  the  Divine  Process.  There  is  a 
divinity  in  the  world  which  shapes  our  ends  and 
which  we  must  firmly  grasp  by  a  study  of  its  outer 
manifestation  in  art,  science,  literature  and  prophecy. 
The  true,  beautiful,  and  good  are  expressions  of  the 
divine  order  of  the  world  which  must  flow  into  our 


236  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  Divine  l^ves  if  WG  would  TealizG  our  final  destiny. 
Process  rpj^^  huHian  soul  in  the  course  of  its 
development  finally  catches  a  glimpse  of  the  Divine 
Ego.  The  student  passes  through  the  different 
psychological  processes  until  he  arrives  at  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  universal,  eternal  process  of  the  world. 
The  educational  process,  the  psychological  process, 
the  teaching  process  lead  up  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
Divine  Process.  There  is  a  parallelism  between 
education,  psychology  and  religion  and  the  unity 
of  the  world,  and  knowledge  is  proclaimed.  The 
educational  consciousness  becomes  the  religious 
consciousness  in  and  through  the  teaching  con- 
sciousness. 


XV. 

THE  DOCTRINE 

The  true  doctrine  of  thought  is  based  upon  the 
law  of  mind  activity  and  upon  those  immanent 
mind  principles  underiying  thought  and  thing. 
The  movement  of  the  mind  in  thinking  parallels 
the  content  of  things  to  be  thought.  Thinking  is 
a  spiritual  activity  in  which  the  soul  breathes  in 
the  realm  of  ideas.  The  function  of  the  mind  is 
to  think,  and  the  function  of  thinking  is  relating, 
unifying,  '^ putting  things  together."  To  think  a 
thing  is  to  unify  the;  thing  process  with  the  mind 
process,  to  transmute  the  content  of  the  thing 
into  the  constitution  of  the  mind  and  to 
realize  through  this  interaction  knowl- 
edge. This  doctrine  teaches  that  thinking  is  possible 
only  in  relation  of  the  thinker  and  the  thing  thought, 
and  to  examine  the  thinking  process  is  at  the  same 
time  to  examine  the  process  of  things  which  the 
mind  thinks.  In  other  words,  "mind  and  matter, 
subject  and  object,  thought  and  being  are  related 
phases  of  the  same  underlying  principle  which 
unifies  the  two  seemingly  contradictory  principles. 
That  which  ties  the  two  together  is  a  spiritual 
substance  which  at  the  same  time  is  the  absolute 
principle  of  the  universe." 

The  Mysterious  Unity. — The  unity  between  mind 
and     what    it    thinks,    is     not     mechanical,    not 

237 


238  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

chemical,  but  organic.  A  mechanical  unity  con- 
sists in  putting  things  together  by  laws  externally 
imposed,  as  in  the  chair  or  reaper.  A  chemical 
unity  is  a  merging  of  parts  into  a  new  whole  differ- 
ing from  the  original,  as  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
forming  water.  An  organic  unity  is  a  union  by 
virtue  of  an  inherent  energy  seeking  the  end  for 
which  the  organism  is  created,  as  plants  and  animals. 
The  purpose  of  the  organism  is  to  realize  itself  from 
within,  but  the  purpose  of  the  mechanism  is  to 
realize  itself  from  without.  An  organism  grows,  a. 
mechanism  is  changed.  Thought  is  an  organic 
process  of  mind  identifying  itself  with  the  thought 
in  the  sentence,  in  the  poem,  and  in  all  lessons 
studied. 

An  organism,  as  the  heart,  maple,  robin,  cannot 
exist  in  and  by  itself,  but  must  exist  in  and  through 
what  is  other  than  itself.  Thought  cannot  exist  in 
and  by  itself  but  always  exists  in  and  through 
other  things  than  itself.  It  is  the  very  essence  of 
thought  to  contain  within  itself  a  living  relation 
to  things.  Reality  without  and  thought  within  are 
opposite  poles  of  the  same  thing  and  are  at  heart 
one.  This  same  thing  is  the  universal  reason  which 
pervades  all  thought  and  all  things,  and  forms  all 
existence  into  a  rational  coherent  system  through 
Relativity  ^  common  spiritual  principle.  The  hu- 
of  Thought  j^g^j^  mind  and  the  real  world  must  work 
together  harmoniously  if  thought  is  to  be  identified 
with  the  thing.  If  knowledge  be  possible  and  the 
world  is  to  reveal  itself  to  the  thinking  mind  there 


THE  DOCTRINE  239 

must  be  an  affinity  between  the  mind  and  what  it 
thinks.  In  thinking  a  thing  the  mind  identifies 
itself  with  the  content  of  reality  and  never  with  the 
thing  itself  which  is  said  to  be  unthinkable.  In 
connection  with  this  doctrine  we  hear  such  expres- 
sions as,  the  external  is  outside  of  the  mind  and 
hence  outside  of  knowledge;  reality  is  richer  than 
thought;   knowledge  is  unequal  to  reality. 

Every  thing  that  exists  was  originally  a  human 
or  divine  thought.  This  thought  is  now  mani- 
fested in  nature,  man,  art,  law,  ethics,  education 
and  religion.  All  being  is  thought  to  the  Infinite 
Mind  and  may  be  thought  to  the  finite  mind  pro- 
vided it  is  sufficiently  developed  to  think  it.  If  a 
thing  cannot  be  thought  it  does  not  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  object,  but  upon  the  capability 
and  development  of  the  mind.  The  thought  which 
we  find  in  nature  is  not  created  by  the  M^nd 

human  mind.  The  fundamental  meaning  -^^  Nature 
of  nature  is  discovered  and  ascertained  to  be  a 
system  of  relations  corresponding  to  our  own 
rationality.  The  essence  of  nature  is  the  essence  of 
mind.  The  meaning  of  nature  is  the  meaning  of 
mind.  It  is  the  function  of  science  to  trace  out  the 
thought  element  in  nature  and  organize  it  into 
thinkable  forms.  The  modern  thinker  is  now  teach- 
ing that  things  are  related  to  thought  and  thought 
is  related  to  things.  We  are  gradually  coming  to 
the  belief  that  the  universe  is  an  organic  unity  con- 
stantly evolving  and  working  out  its  secret  poten- 
cies.    If  this  doctrine  be  true,  nature,  mind  and 


240  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

God  are  ideas  which  belong  to  a  unitary  system  of 
knowledge. 

We  are  taught  by  Prof.  Royce  that  the  world, 
whatever  it  is,  consists  of  such  stuff  as  ideas  are  made 
of.  Matter  is  a  mass  of  coherent  ideas;  time  and 
place  are  ideal;  the  world  is  a  universal  mind. 
If  this  idealistic  doctrine  be  true,  then 
the  mind  is  able  to  think  the  world,  but 
if  it  be  false,  the  world  is  unknowable  and  has  no 
meaning  to  the  mind.  If  the  world  be  not  ideal, 
then  science  which  is  a  mental  interpretation  of 
the  world  has  no  meaning  nor  value.  If  the  world  be 
ideal,  its  essence  is  thinkable  by  some  mind,  and 
may  be  thought  by  any  mind  having  sufficient 
capacity.  Since  this  is  a  world  of  a  universal  mind 
and  extends  beyond  our  particular  consciousness 
it  cannot  be  fully  grasped  by  the  finite  mind. 

Thought  Determines  Thing. — Things  exist  for  us 
only  as  thought  constructs  them  and  builds  them 
up  in  our  intelligence.  Thought  does  not  create 
things  per  se  but  finds  in  them  a  rationality  which 
determines  what  they  are  and  makes  them  an  ob- 
ject of  knowledge.  While  Spencer  would  say  the 
outer  world  molds  the  mind,  Kant  afiirms  the  mind 
molds  the  outer  world.  Fichte  makes  knowledge 
an  activity  of  the  ego  directed  toward  things.  In 
these  systems  of  thought  there  are  two  organic 
elements  which  enter  into  knowledge — thought  and 
thing.  It  is  impossible  to  think  pure  subject  or 
pure  object  for  thought  in  its  real  nature  is  a  rela- 
tion of  the  two.     It  is  certainly  a  true  doctrine  to 


THE  DOCTRINE  241 

say  that  the  subjective  world  was  developed  out  of 
the  objective  world  and  that  things  are  what  they 
are  through  a  thought  process.  It  is  as  impossible 
for  an  individual  to  create  new  ideas  apart  from 
objectivity  as  to  create  new  atoms,  for  ideas  are 
essentially  related  to  reality.  They  do  not  exist 
in  the  mind  spontaneously  but  are  the  expressions 
of  the  real  nature  of  things.  When  we  examine 
closely  the  relation  of  thought  to  thing,  of  subject 
to  object,  we  find  the  unity  expressed  by  these 
correlatives  absolutely  indivisible.  We  can  dis- 
tinguish subject  from  object,  yet  we  are  not  able 
to  divorce  them.  The  thinker  cut  off  from  the 
object  is  unthinkable;  self  is  possible  only  in 
opposition  to  the  non-self;  spirit  is  known  only  in 
contradistinction  to  the  non-spiritual;  thought  and 
thing  are  inseparable  in  the  knowledge  process. 

Spencer  makes  the  thing  a  persistence  in  con- 
sciousness, and  we  might  add  a  persistence  of 
mind  in  determining  the  thing.  The  thing  does  not 
determine  mind  but  mind  determines  the  persistence 
content  and  process  of  the  thing.  The  oiuind 
eyeless  fish  in  the  Mammoth  Cave  was  not  created 
by  thought,  yet  it  did  not  exist  as  a  species  from 
the  standpoint  of  knowledge  until  interpreted  by 
some  human  mind.  The  object  apart  from  the 
mind  or  the  mind  apart  from  the  object  may  con- 
stitute potential  knowledge  but  actual  knowledge 
is  found  only  in  their  organic  unity.  The  whole 
body  of  knowledge  taught  in  our  schools  was 
determined  by  the  mind  making  the  thing  series 

13 


242  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

harmonize  with  the  thought  series.  If  the  outer 
world  could  not  be  made  to  harmonize  with  the 
inner  world  of  thought,  if  these  two  series  could  not 
be  made  to  coalesce,  if  thought  and  thing  could  not 
be  unified,  then  knowledge  is  impossible. 

Thought  and  Thing  Unified. — Thought  not  only 
determines  the  thing  but  before  knowledge  is 
possible  it  must  unify  and  organize  it  into  mind 
terms.  Subject  and  object  are  made  one  through 
a  universalizing  self-consciousness  which  abides  in 
things  and  thought.  Thought  and  thing  must  be 
distinct  yet  united  before  knowledge  is  possible. 
Dr.  Baillie  has  well  said.  The  being  of  the  object  is 
the  content  of  the  subject,  the  process  of  the  sub- 
ject is  the  life  of  the  object.  In  reason  thought  and 
thing  are  consciously  one  in  form  and  content. 
When  the  law  of  thought  parallels  the  law  of  things 
the  resultant  is  truth.  All  knowledge  presupposes 
a  union  of  thought  and  thing  through  a  common 
principle.  Thought  cut  off  from  thing  is  empty 
and  thing  cut  off  from  thought  is  blind. 

Thought  finally  returns  upon  itself  and  thinks 
itself  as  the  generative  principle  of  all  things.  The 
deepest  doctrine  of  the  thinking  process  lies  in  the 
^     ^  fact   that   thought    which    was    once    es- 

Thought  ^  ° 

Returning  to  trauffcd  is  to  bc  reunited.  The  thinking; 
Thought  .     ,  •  .^  . 

mmd  now  recognizes  its  own  process  in 

the  processes  objective  to  itself.  This  is  the  para- 
disaical state  of  unity  between  the  thinking  mind 
and  the  world  to  be  thought.  The  cosmic  cycle 
unfolds  into  the  spiritual  cycle  and  the  thing  proc- 


THE  DOCTRINE  243 

ess  becomes  the  thought  process.  It  is  the  principle 
of  the  human  soul  to  struggle  to  attain  the  universal 
ideal  around  the  charmed  circle  of  reality.  The 
idea  in  attaining  its  self-realization  turns  a  complete 
summersault.  It  first  existed  in  the  divine  mind, 
then  descended  to  unconscious  nature,  awoke  to 
self-consciousness  in  man,  realized  its  meaning  in 
the  family,  society,  school  and  state,  and  finally 
through  art,  religion  and  science  makes  a  complete 
cycle  enriched  and  adorned.  In  this  panoramic 
movement  the  mind  interprets  the  world  as  a  process 
constantly  struggling  from  a  vague  whole  through 
difTerentiation  to  a  definite  whole.  The  creative 
spiritual  force  running  through  the  world  gives  it 
continuity,  makes  it  thinkable,  and  is  the  source  of 
all  human  knowledge. 

The  Knowledge  Process. — The  fundamental  proc- 
ess in  education  is  the  unification  of  thought  and 
thing  and  the  attainment  of  truth  and  knowledge. 

"Truth  means  that  knowledge  which  embraces  its  object  upon 
all  possible  sides  and  in  all  of  its  possible  relations  as  the  complete 
expression  of  the  eternal  reason  which  underlies  it." 

As  to  the  origin  of  knowledge  empiricism  insists 
that  knowledge  is  due  to  experience  only;  rational- 
ism maintains  that  the  source  of  all  knowledge  is 
in  the  mind;  the  critical  school  sets  forth  the  doc- 
trine that  the  gross  materials  of  knowledge  are 
derived  from  the  senses  and  the  formal  elements 
of  knowledge  have  a  rationalistic  origin.  As  to 
the  nature  of  knowledge  realism  lays  stress  upon  the 
objective  world  while  idealism  emphasizes  the  world 


244  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  consciousness.  The  most  conclusive  doctrine  of 
knowledge  maintains  that  there  is  a  spiritual  prin- 
ciple in  man  which  is  one  with  the  spiritual  principle 
of  the  world.  Knowledge  has  its  source  in  the 
unification  of  the  thinking  mind  with  the  law,  order 
and  rationality  of  the  world.  When  the  inner 
meaning  of  the  world  has  been  ascertained  it  turns 
out  to  be  law,  and  law  is  ideal,  representing  not 
merely  the  thought  in  the  mind  but  the  real  principle^ 
itself.  Knowledge  is  the  result  of  thinking  and — 
'thinking,''  says  Emerson,  *'is  the  hardest  task  in 
the  world.''  When  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  asked 
how  he  made  all  his  wonderful  discoveries  he 
repHed,  '^By  thinking."  Knowledge  is  rooted  in 
the  thought  process  and  grows  in  proportion  to  the 
self-activity  of  the  individual. 

Factors  in  Knowledge. — To  think  is  to  reahze 
an  ideal  but  the  mind  cannot  attain  its  self-realiza- 
tion until  it  hitches  itself  to  an  object.  Thinking 
brings  out  the  new  birth  and  develops  what  is  best 
and  noblest  in  us.     Browning  says: 

"If  our  reach  did  not  exceed  our  grasp,  what  is  heaven  for?" 

The  thinking  process  attains  ideals,  makes  them 
reals,  and  the  basis  for  other  ideals.  The  soul 
Soul-  craves  the  other  world,  for  in  this  other- 

Growth  j^ggg  j^  seeks  to  attain  itself.  Soul-growth 
is  a  process  of  uttering  self,  and  outering  self  in  the 
world  objective  to  itself.    The  poet  again  asserts: 

"Unless  above  himself  he  can  exalt  himself,  how  mean  a  thing 
is  man." 


THE  DOCTRINE  245 

To  think  is  to  reach  down  below  the  surface  of 
things,  and  to  connect  their  ultimate  reality. 

Dr.  Campbell  in  the  "Evolution  of  Plants*' 
indicates  that  the  life-processes  in  plants  and 
animals  are  the  same.  He  states  that  the  scientific 
biologist  recognizes  the  fundamental  likeness  in  the 
structure  and  the  functions  of  plants  and 

-  Universal 

animals.     Beneath  the  phenomenal  world 
there   is    ultimate    unity   in   the    noumenal    world. 
It  seems  that  every  individual  thing  can  be  traced 
back  to  some  universal  truth. 

The  individual  Model  School  has  as  its  ultimate 
reality  the  universal  ideal  of  school  in  general. 
The  idea  school  creates  not  only  this  individual 
school,  but  has  the  power  to  originate  any  number 
of  schools.     Should  the  Model  School  be  Model 

blotted   out   of   existence   and   the   State  ^^^"^^ 

Normal  of  which  it  is  a  part  be  annihilated,  the 
idea  school  has  within  itself  a  causal  energy 
which  would  produce  other  schools.  The  real 
school  is  not  made  of  brick  and  mortar,  but  is 
born  out  of  the  idea  of  developing  the  spiritual 
nature  of  the  child. 

The  geographical  world  is  an  object  of  sense- 
perception.  Pike's  Peak  is  an  individual  object 
having  form,  size,  location  and  other  essential 
attributes.  The  ultimate  idea  of  this  mountain  is 
found  in  the  internal  force  and  energy  of  the 
earth.  This  force  or  energy  is  found  to  be  law, 
and  law  is  reason,  and  reason  is  the  ultimate 
reality  of  all  things. 


246  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Every  event  in  history  grows  out  of  some  institu- 
tional idea  which  has  for  its  purpose,  the  freedom 
of  the  race.  Beneath  the  multiplicity  of  ideas  in 
history  there  is  an  ultimate  idea  of  spiritual  free- 
dom. The  settlement  of  Georgia  is  an  individual 
fact,  but  its  ultimate  reality  is  the  freedom  of 
poverty-stricken  individuals  and  those  imprisoned 
for  debt.  The  cotton  gin  is  an  individual  event  in 
history  but  has  for  its  universal  principle  the 
amelioration  of  the  industrial  life  of  the  nation. 
Harvard  University  is  a  noted  institution  of  learn- 
ing, and  has  its  origin  in  the  universal  idea  of  John 
Harvard  who  bequeathed  his  library  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  education  and  freedom  of  his  country- 
men. Plymouth  church  in  Brooklyn,  is  a  renowned 
Individual  institution  for  the  promulgation  of  truth 
In  Universal    ^g    g^^    f^j.^^^    ^y    Becchcr,    Abbott    and 

Hillis.  This  small  individual  church  has  been  a 
power  in  spreading  the  gospel  of  righteousness  to 
mankind.  The  political  idea  in  history  has  had 
such  a  wonderful  influence  in  developing  the 
rationality  of  man  that  a  special  paragraph  is 
given  to  the  doctrine  of  the  evolution  of  govern- 
ment which  parallels  and  harmonizes  with  the 
doctrine  of  thought  itself. 

The  Doctrine  Illustrated  in  Civics. — Every  in- 
dividual state,  every  individual  nation,  every 
individual  government,  every  individual  law  grows 
out  of  a  universal  principle  of  reason.  Reason  is 
the  substratum  of  all  governmental  processes  and  the 
creative  energy  of  all  civic  relations.     It  originates 


THE  DOCTRINE  247 

states,  formulates  nations,  establishes  governments, 
and  creates  laws.    According  to  a  statement  of  Hegel : 

**The  state  is  the  divine  idea  as  it  exists  on  earth:  Law  is  the 
objectivity  of  spirit. " 

Rationality  is  a  necessary  substratum  of  law  and 
government  and  is  externally  manifested  in  the 
state.  The  world-spirit  uses  the  state,  the  nation, 
the  government  as  a  means  to  rational  freedom. 
A  state  is  a  phase  of  the  universal  spirit 
and  a  link  in  the  great  chain  of  human 
freedom,  and  contains  a  potential  germ  capable  of 
infinite  development  and  progress.  The  active 
energy  of  spirit  transforms  states,  and  is  constantly 
changing  the  real  nation  into  an  ideal  nation.  The 
particular  form  of  the  state  passes  away,  that  the 
universal  principle  of  thought  may  be  realized. 
As  each  civic  unit  is  annulled,  there  arises  out  of 
this  destruction  the  consciousness  of  human  free- 
dom.   In  Hegelian  phrase: 

"The  result  of  this  process  is  then  that  spirit,  in  rendering  it- 
self objective  and  making  this  its  being  an  object  of  thought,  on 
the  one  hand  destroys  the  determinate  form  of  its  being,  on  the 
other  hand  gains  a  comprehension  of  the  universal  element  which 
it  involves,  and  thereby  gives  a  new  form  to  its  inherent  principle." 

The  Governmental  Process. — Civics  is  the  science 
of  citizenship  and  is  a  necessary  form  of  rational 
control  in  the  development  of  freedom.  The 
different  kinds  of  government,  nomadic,  pa- 
triarchy, theocracy,  aristocracy,  monarchy,  and 
democracy  represent  various  stages  in  the  freedom 


248  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  the  race.  The  underlying  purpose  in  each  form 
of  government  is  to  aid  mankind  in  working  out 
finally  the  problem  of  free  •  government.  The 
governmental  process  is  shown  in  the  republic 
developing  out  of  the  pure  democracy  and  the 
federative  (E  Pluribus  Unum)  republic  growing 
out  of  an  integral  republic.  There  is  a  divine  idea 
rooted  deeply  in  the  governmental  process  that 
manifests  itself  in  law,  order  and  freedom  and 
develops  the  different  forms  of  control.  The  family, 
the  school,  the  civil  district,  the  municipality,  the 
county,  the  state  and  the  nation  are  expressions  of 
the  different  governmental  ideas  applied  to  various 
units  of  control.  Each  unit  has  a  legislative,  execu- 
tive and  judicial  process.  These  distinct  functions 
are  necessary  to  the  government  of  a  free  people. 

The  central  creative  principle  of  our  national  gov- 
ernment is  an  institutionalized  thought  forming  the 
nation.  While  government  has  been  considered  a 
necessary  evil,  liberty  and  spiritual  free- 
tionaiized  dom  cau  bc  secured  only  through  some 
form  of  rational  control.  The  ideal  in 
government  is  the  same  as  the  ideal  in  school 
management,  and  that  is,  control  should  lead  to 
self-government.  That  government  is  best  which 
administers  to  the  freedom  of  the  people  and  which 
takes  into  consideration  the  consent  of  the  gov- 
erned. There  is  a  gradual  evolution  in  our  national 
government. 

The  Mayflower  Compact,  instituted  for  the  glory 
of    God    and    the    advancement    of    the    Christian 


THE  DOCTRINE  249 

faith,  was  a  covenant  to  combine  the  Pilgrims 
into  a  civil  body  politic.  In  this  compact,  popular 
constitutional  liberty  was  born.  The  First  Written 
Constitution  in  the  United  States  was  based  upon 
the  doctrine  that  the  right  to  rule  is  found  in  the 
free  consent  of  the  governed.  This  document  pro- 
vided for  equal  representation  from  the  several 
towns  and  the  choice  of  a  governor  and  council  by 
a  vote  of  the  free  people.  The  spirit  of  the  New 
England  Confederation  was  that  the  common  good 
must  take  precedence  over  individual  privileges. 
The  different  governmental  functions  began  to 
dawn  in  the  Albany  Plan  of  Union  which  provided 
for  a  President  and  General  Council.  The  Declara- 
tion of  Rights  represented  a  further  evolution  in 
the  governmental  process  and  asserted  individual 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  American  colonists.  In 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  colonists 
pledged  their  lives,  fortunes  and  sacred  Evolution  in 
honors  in  support  of  the  doctrine  that  Government 
they  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  inde- 
pendent states.  These  principles  of  liberty  and 
freedom  were  embodied  in  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation. This  was  the  prototype  of  the  federal 
constitution  and  put  in  visible  form  the  idea  of 
civil  freedom.  *'In  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general 
welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  our- 
selves and  our  posterity'^  the  federal  constitution 
was   ordained   and   established.     This   constitution 


250  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS     • 

is  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  and  is  the  highest 
expression  of  the  consciousness  of  freedom. 

Thought  in  Picture  Study. — The  doctrine  of 
thought  may  be  further  illustrated  by  a  study  of 
pictures.  To  picture  is  to  put  meaning  into  form, 
to  externalize  the  internal  image,  to  give  expression 
to  the  self,  and  to  throw  symbols  into  space.  The 
psychological  movement  in  picture-making  appears 
to  be  as  follows:  The  child  sees  the  picture,  for 
instance,  ''Can't  You  Talk?"  by  Holmes, 
and  at  first  does  not  distinguish  it  from 
the  real  object.  He  expects  the  picture  to  talk, 
to  play  and  to  bark.  He  gradually  discriminates 
between  the  real  object  and  the  picture,  distinguish- 
ing appearance  from  objective  reality.  In  teaching 
drawing  the  picture  becomes  a  physical  symbol  for 
the  expression  of  thought.  The  internal  mental 
process  separates  the  image  from  itself,  projects 
itself  from  itself  into  space  and  finally  in  studying 
the  picture  re-thinks  itself.  Landseer  in 
painting  ''Saved''  through  the  activity 
of  mind,  creates  an  image  which  is  externalized 
and  made  objective.  The  child  is  attracted  to  this 
external  form  which  at  first  seems  alien  to  himself 
but  which  after  a  careful  study  takes  on  meaning 
and  pictures  his  ideal,  true  life. 

"Angel  Heads"  by  Reynolds  is  an  ideal  concep- 
tion created  by  the  inner  activity  of  the 
spirit  itself.      In  throwing  these  thoughts 
out,   the   canvas   becomes   spiritualized  and  repre- 
sents the  true  nature  of  the  innermost  life  of  the  soul. 


THE  DOCTRINE  251 

This  picture  reveals  the  essence  of  spirit  and  por- 
trays the  inner  unfolding  soul  of  Reynolds.  It 
not  only  shows  his  creative  genius,  but  delineates 
his  architectonic  skill  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
angels'  heads. 

Out  of  the  creative  mind  of  Herring  springs 
forth  that  beautiful  conception,  '^Pharaoh's  Horses.'' 
The  artist  is  reflective,  contemplative  and  idealistic 
and  penetrates  the  canvas  with  his  own 
thought.  The  idea  seeks  that  form  which 
is  capable  of  expressing  its  meaning  and  the  meaning 
ill  turn  is  expressed  through  the  external  symbol. 
Fra  Angelica  portrays  the  Christian  doc-  Fra 

trine  of  spiritual  longing  and  aspiration.  Angelica 
He  was  a  devoted  student  of  art,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  devout  monk,  and  expressed  the  intense 
religious  feeling  of  his  own  soul.  ^*The  Annuncia- 
tion" painted  on  the  wall  of  a  monastery,  illustrates 
a  combination  of  architecture  and  painting.  The 
picture  represents  Gabriel  just  descending  from 
heaven.  In  a  half  kneeling  attitude  he  announces 
the  divine  message  to  Mary  who  receives  the  an- 
nunciation with  resignation  and  meekness.  The 
beautiful  tints  of  this  painting  harmonize  with  the 
thought  and  sentiment  of  the  production. 

Titian   was   an  idealist  and   painted  out  of  the 
fullness  of  his  mind.     He  did  not  imitate 
nature,  but  painted  the  inner  subjective, 
reflective  consciousness  of  the  true  soul  of  an  artist. 

Rembrandt,  the  great  Dutch  painter  was  an  orig- 
inal thinker  and  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the 


252  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

great  cluster  of  artists.     He  was  both  an 

Rembrandt       .  ,       i.    .  ■,  ,.  .       . 

idealist  and  realist,  now  pamtmg  the 
objective  realities  of  the  world  and  now  expressing 
the  inner  truths  of  life.  By  means  of  light  and 
shade  he  was  able  to  express  the  most  varied 
thoughts  and  the  most  delicate  emotions.  The 
painting,  '^Jeremiah,''  reveals  the  profound  thought 
Michael  of  Michael  Angelo  and  externalizes  the 
Angeio  inner  activity  of  a  great  thinker.     Some 

one  has  said,  '^he  was  not  a  great  painter  nor  a 
great  colorist  but  a  great  draftsman,  a  great  sculptor 
and  a  profound  thinker. ''  His  ideal  conceptions 
were  the  result  of  a  vigorous  mind,  a  vivid  imagina- 
tion and  the  ability  to  paint  or  carve  these  thoughts 
into  a  beautiful  expression.  He  had  that  artistic 
insight  which  enabled  him  to  express  the  varied 
mental  emotions  through  the  modified  form  of  the 
human  body.  In  his  ''Last  Judgment^'  he  poured 
out  his  thoughts  in  a  stream  of  living  emotional  life. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  painted  ''The  Last  Supper" 
upon  the  wall  of  a  Milan  monastery.  He  took  as 
his  pattern  the  table,  the  table-linen  and  the  china- 
Leonardo  ware  of  the  monastery.  The  figures 
DaVinci  arouud  the  table  are  arranged  in  threes, 
but  all  are  held  in  organic  unity.  They  are  Barthol- 
omew, James,  Andrew,  Judas,  Peter,  John,  Thomas, 
James,  the  elder,  Philip,  Matthew,  Thaddeus  and 
Simon.  It  is  said  the  artist  was  never  able  to 
finish  the  figures  of  Christ  and  Judas.  He  had  the 
ability  to  sketch  the  inner  secrets  and  mysteries  of 
human  life  and  used  in  a  masterful  way  the  delicate 


THE  DOCTRINE  253 

tints  of  light  and  shade  to  picture  the  yearnings  of 
the  human  soul. 

The  beauty  in  RaphaeFs  pictures  does  not  depend 
upon  facial  expression,  but  upon  architectonics  of 
the  productions.  His  skill  as  an  artist  is  found  in 
his  ability  to  paint  the  picture  as  an 
organic  whole.  While  the  individuals  are 
strongly  marked  in  ^^The  Transfiguration'^  there 
is  an  organic  unity  in  the  production.  Christ  floats 
toward  the  source  of  light,  the  invisible  Father,  by 
w^hom  all  are  made  visible.  On  the  right  Moses 
appears  in  contrast  with  Elias  on  the  left;  the  one, 
the  law-giver,  the  other,  the  prophet.  On  the  top 
of  the  mountain  are  the  two  disciples,  John  on  the 
right,  gracefully  bending  his  face  downward  from 
the  overpowering  light,  and  James  on  the  left  hiding 
his  face  in  humility.  Peter,  the  bold,  gazes  directly 
on  the  splendor  until  finally  he  is  overcome  and  is 
compelled  to  cover  his  eyes  with  his  hands. 

Below  the  mountain  are  two  groups.  On  the 
right,  coming  from  the  distant  hamlet  is  seen  the 
family  in  which  the  demoniac  boy  forms  the  centre. 
The  boy  is  supported  and  restrained  by  his  father 
who  is  predisposed  to  insanity.  There  is  also  seen 
in  this  picture  the  boy's  mother,  the  mother's 
brother,  her  father,  and  an  uncle  who  is  a  simpleton. 
This  group  is  supplicating  the  nine  disciples  for 
relief  who  are  sympathetic,  but  whose  looks  show 
they  can  do  nothing.  One  holds  the  Law,  but  the 
letter  needs  the  spirit  to  give  it  life.  Andrew  hold- 
ing the   Law  is  Peter's  brother;    Judas  is  at  the 


254  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

extreme  left;  Matthew  is  looking  over  the  shoulder 
of  Bartholomew  who  is  pointing  to  the  demoniac 
boy.  Thomas  bends  over  the  boy  with  intense 
interest,  Simon  is  kneeling  between  Thomas  and 
Bartholomew,  while  Philip  is  pointing  to  the  scene 
on  the  Mountain.  James,  resembling  Christ,  stands 
behind  Jude  his  brother. 

Every  true  work  of  art  has  an  organic  unity  which 
holds  the  parts  together.  The  central  idea  of  this 
painting  is  the  divine  in  contrast  with  the  human. 
Organic  ChHst  abovc  is  transfigured  and  the 
Unity  niortals    below    are    illuminated.      Above 

are  seen  the  celestial  light-seekers  in  contrast  with 
the  three  swooning  disciples.  Below  the  mountain 
are  observed  two  groups  in  contrast;  one  broken 
in  spirit,  and  the  other  sympathetic  and  feeling 
the  need  of  the  Lord.  The  painting  consists  of  a 
series  of  dualisms  held  together  by  the  transfigured 
Christ. 

A  work  of  art  appeals  to  the  senses  but  it  is  the 
reason  which  gives  it  organic  unity.  The  picture 
has  a  sensuous  effect  upon  the  observer,  and  the 
entire  painting  has  its  focal  centre  in  the  Savior. 
Elias  inspired  by  the  celestial  is  opposite  the  maniac 
boy  who  is  controlled  by  the  demoniacal.  Elias 
floats  freely  while  Moses  carrying  the  heavy  tables 
of  the  Law  seems  to  be  supported  by  the  tree. 

In  Christian  art  the  idea  seems  to  be  too  tran- 
scendent for  art  to  express.  The  canvas  is  inade- 
quate to  reveal  the  inner  spiritual  longings.  Christ 
in  eternal  unity  with  the  Absolute  looks  upward 


THE  DOCTRINE  255 

and  expresses  a  dependence.  The  two  saints  on 
the  right,  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Julian  are  placed 
there  to  bear  the  message  to  Christ  that  he  is  needed 
below.  The  transfigured  was  a  spiritual  entity 
and  to  se^  and  understand  this  painting  it  is  neces- 
sary to  look  beneath  the  sensuous  for  the  meaning. 
To  think  the  painting  is  to  retrace  the  thought  of 
Raphael  as  he  pours  it  out  on  canvas.  It  is  again 
noticed  that  the  highest,  deepest  and  final  doctrine 
of  thought  is  that  the  mind  must  everlastingly 
think  its  products.  The  delicate  shades  of  meaning, 
the  physical  and  spiritual  appearance  as  dropped 
out  of  the  mind  of  Raphael,  are  to  be  observed  and 
studied. 

This  discussion  of  "The  Transfiguration'^  is  based 
upon  an  interpretation  of  this  masterpiece  in  the 
Journal  of  Speculative  Philosophy. 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS 

THE    LIFE    PROCESS 

XVI. 

THE  PROBLEM 

The  school  process  realizes  itself  in  the  teaching 
process;  the  teaching  process  attains  its  final  pur- 
pose in  the  life  process.  The  school  is  organized 
that  some  one  may  be  taught ;  teaching  not  only 
prepares  the  individual  for  living,  but  is  itself  a 
life  unfolding  process.  The  purpose  of  the  whole 
educational  process  is  to  train  the  individual  into 
the  consciousness  of  right  living.  The  ultimate 
aim  in  education  is  knowledge,  discipline,  insight, 
inspiration,  character  and  a  well-rounded  and  noble 
life.  No  doctrine  of  education  is  complete  that 
does  not  discuss  the  origin  and  nature  of  life  and 
the  fundamental  principles  underlying  human  intel- 
ligence and  culture. 

Theories  of  Life. — Many  of  the  great  thinkers 
of  the  world  have  tried  to  solve  the  problem  of  hu- 
man life  and  the  following  theories  are  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  forms  of  the  solution:  biogenesis, 
by  parentage;  creation,  by  an  act  of  the  Eternal 
Energy;  abiogenesis,  by  the  natural  action  of 
preexisting  conditions  in  the  ultimate 
xogenesis  constitution  of  things.  The  theory  of  life 
from  life  accounts  for  our  own  existence  and  for 
all  organic  life.     The  smallest  microscopic  organism 

256 


THE  PROBLEM  257 

and  the  largest  whale  that  plows  the  deep  have 
their  origin  in  preexisting  life.  This  doctrine  also 
explains  the  fossil  life  but  does  not  give  us  any 
clue  to  the  first  life.  According  to  the  theory  of 
creation  there  is  an  Infinite  and  Eternal  Energy 
from  which  all  things  proceed.  The  mechanical  school 
of  thought  makes  life  due  to  an  interaction  of  matter 
and  force.     Dr.  Biichner  makes  the  statement  that: 

"All  organic  beings  owe  their  origin  and  propagation  to  the 
conjoint  action  of  natural  forces  and  materials." 

Haeckel  makes  physical  and  chemical  properties 
of  certain  bodies  the  real  cause  of  all  organic  life. 
The  original  life  upon  the  earth  has  been  accounted 
for  by  spontaneous  generation.     Dr.  Bastian  writes: 

"Both  observation  and  experiment  unmistakably  testify  to  the 
fact  that  Hving  matter  is  constantly  being  formed  de  novo  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  same  laws  and  tendencies  which  determine  all  the  more 
simple  chemical  combinations." 

Thomas  Huxley  denies  the  Doctor's  statement 
and  declares: 

"The  doctrine  of  biogenesis  is  the  only  theory  that  will  explain 
the  nature  and  origin  of  life. " 

It  is  a  scientific  fact  demonstrated  beyond  the 
possibility  of  a  doubt  that  life  cannot  come  from 
the  non-living.  If  we  do  not  accept  spontaneous 
generation,  admits  Haeckel,  then  we  have  to  accept 
the  miracle  of  a  supernatural  creation.  Clifford 
made  an  ingenious  guess  at  the  origin  of  life  and  how 
living  matter  acquires  the  peculiarity  of  producing 
17 


258  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

its  kind  by  combining  spontaneous  generation  and 
mechanical  action.  A  few  years  ago  scientists 
made  an  attempt  to  explain  the  phenomenon  of 
life  by  means  of  a  vital  force  resident  in  living 
matter.  This  energy  is  life  and  manifests  itself  in 
living    beings    and    at    death    is    said    to 

The  Non-  °  ° 

Mechanical  Icavc  the  body.  The  non-mechanical 
school  of  thought  adds  a  ''something 
beyond^*  to  physical  laws  to  produce  life.  Lotze 
combines  mechanical  laws  with  the  ordered  action 
of  the  Absolute  in  his  theory  of  life.  Another 
theory  allied  to  this  makes  matter,  originally 
endowed  by  the  Creator  with  a  subtle  latent  qual- 
ity, contain  the  original  germs  of  life. 

In  the  final  statement  of  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  life  there  are  two  opposing  hypotheses 
that  are  worthy  of  careful  consideration:  one  is 
called  the  doctrine  of  special  creation  and  the  other 
the  doctrine  of  derivation.  The  doctrine  of  special 
creation  was  accepted  up  to  the  time  of  Goethe. 
Fiske  describes  this  doctrine  by  saying  that  a 
homogeneous  clay  model  of  human  form  was  trans- 
formed into  a  heterogeneous  combination  of  organs 
Creation  and  ^^d  tissucs.  Thc  scicntist  usually  rejects 
Derivation  ^^ie  spccial-crcatiou  theory  and  accepts 
the  doctrine  of  derivation.  According  to  this 
theory  higher  forms  of  life  are  gradually  evolved 
from  lower  forms  by  the  laws  of  variation,  adaptation 
and  heredity.  In  support  of  this  life  theory  the 
scientist  bases  his  arguments  upon  classification, 
embryology,    morphology    and    distribution.      The 


THE  PROBLEM  259 

best  thinkers  of  the  world  to-day  accept  the  doctrine 
that  the  evolution  of  life  from  monera  to  millions 
of  species  of  plants  and  animals  has  been  a  change 
from  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity  and  that  life 
both  physical  and  psychical  is — '^The  continuous 
adjustment  of  inner  to  outer  relations."  Herbert 
Spencer  has  given  the  most  profound  and  complete 
definition  of  life  known  to  the  scientific  world: 

"Life  is  the  definite  combination  of  heterogeneous  changes  both 
simultaneous  and  successive  in  correspondence  with  external  co- 
existences and  sequences." 

The  Bible  ascribes  the  origin  of  life  to  the  creative 
act  of  God: 

"In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth.  .  .  . 
All  things  were  made  by  him;  and  without  him  was  not  anything 
made  that  was  made. " 

The  physicist  speaks  of  life  as  a  machine  for 
doing  work;  the  chemist  defines  life  as  a  body  of 
unstable  compounds:  the  biologist  analyzes  all 
living  creatures  into  organs  and  tissues;  the  philos- 
opher characterizes  life  as  an  inner  correspondence 
to  an  outer  environment. 

Doctrines  of  Mind. — Whatever  may  be  the  origin 
and  nature  of  life,  it  is  certain  that  its  kindred  force 
and  highest  form  is  mind.     Lewes  maintains  that: 

"  Both  hfe  and  mind  are  processes  and  neither  is  a  substance. " 

Fiske  defines  psychical  life  as  the  continuous 
establishment  of  subjective   relations  that   are   in 


260  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

correspondence  with  environing  objective  relations. 
There  are  three  theories  which  attempt  to  explain 
the  origin  of  mental  life;  namely,  creationism, 
traducianism  and  evolutionism. 

Creationism  teaches  that  God  implants  the 
divine  spirit  in  man  at  birth.  Dr.  Ladd  in  explain- 
ing this  theory  asserts  that  *^God  produces  ^from 
himself  an  entity  called  a  soul  and  puts  it  ready- 
made  into  the  body.''  This  author  cannot  conceive 
how  a  mind  or  a  soul  which  has  never  performed  the 
activities  necessary  to  its  existence  can  be  placed 
ready-made  in  the  body. 

Traducianism  sets  forth  the  theory  that  God 
breathed  the  breath  of  life  into  some  remote  ances- 
tor and  that  the  race  has  inherited  this  mental 
characteristic  throughout  all  ages.  This  doctrine 
transmits   mental  life  through   physical   processes. 

Evolutionism  makes  man's  mental  life  a  process 
of  development.  The  mind  is,  when  it  begins  to 
act.  Its  origin  is  in  and  through  its  activities. 
Before  the  mind  functions  it  does  not  exist.  The 
mind  does  not  spring  into  full  existence  at  a  leap, 
but  is  a  process,  a  development.  Dr.  Ladd  would 
have  us  believe  that — 

"The  existence  of  mind  with  respect  to  its  origin,  as  well  as  with 
respect  to  the  degree  of  its  existence,  is  nothing  apart  from  those 
activities  in  which  the  hfe  and  growth  of  mind  consist. " 

Naturalistic  evolution  denies  the  necessity  of 
grounding  first  principles  in  a  potential,  spiritual 
energy.      This    doctrine    attempts    to    explain    life 


THE  PROBLEM  261 

from  purely  mechanical  forces.  It  supposes  that 
at  some  period  in  the  world-series  through  spon- 
taneous generation,  the  higher  form  was  created 
out  of  the  lower.  However,  the  best  scientific 
thought  denies  the  possibility  of  generating  the 
living  out  of  the  non-living  and  lays  down  the 
axiom  that  from  nothingj  nothing  comes. 

The  Spiritual  Principle. — In  order  that  natu- 
ralistic evolution  may  be  possible  it  must  be 
ultimately  grounded  in  a  spiritual  principle  which 
refers  to  an  absolute  first  cause  of  the  world.  Among 
the  mechanical  forces  of  nature  there  must  be  some 
unitary,  abiding  and  coordinating  principle.  This 
subtle  causality  is  a  spiritual  entity  and  is  the 
controlling  power  of  all  that  is.  The  world  move- 
ment cannot  be  explained  on  any  rational  basis 
except  through  this  hidden  power.  It  is  impossible 
to  explain  the  cosmic  order  unless  the  doctrine  be 
grounded  in  a  spiritual  energy.  To  understand  the 
evolution  of  the  world  it  is  necessary  to  connect  its 
immanence  with  its  transcendence.  The  immanent 
spiritual  energy  potential  in  the  world  is  the  result 
of  a  self-active  Creator. 

The  spiritual  cosmic  principle  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  theory  of  organic  evolution.  It  places 
at  the  heart  of  the  world  an  energy  struggling 
between  potentiality  and  actuality.  A  living  or- 
ganism is  a  synthesis  of  mechanical  and  physical 
forces.  In  the  lower  forms  of  life  there  is  no  complete 
return  upon  itself.  When  an  individual  has  achieved 
sufficient  world  energy  to  return  upon  itself  it  marks 


262  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  dawn  of  the  soul.    The  soul  is  a  force 

The 

Hidden  having    the    power    to    transfer    potency 

into  actuality  and  to  make  a  complete 
return  upon  itself,  as  in  poetry  and  painting. 
Individuality  is  changed  into  personality  and  per- 
sonality is  based  upon  spirituality.  The  soul  is  a 
spiritual  energy  whose  essential  nature  is  not  activ- 
ity alone,  but  potentiality  in  a  large  degree.  It  is 
the  law  of  the  potential  to  realize  itself  constantly 
in  the  actual.  The  soul  in  its  ultimate  analysis  is 
grounded  in  the  self-activity  of  the  Absolute.  The 
world  energy  is  transmuted  into  the  soul  and  it  is 
given  the  same  movement  as  other  world  series; 
namely,  a  struggle  between  the  ideal  and  real. 
The  soul  life  grows  and  develops  by  a  constant 
tension  between  its  immanent  and  transcendent 
nature.  The  soul  is  a  higher  form  of  spiritual 
energy  than  that  in  life.  In  fact  the  soul  is  the 
climax  of  life  development.  There  may  be  life 
without  soul,  but  there  can  be  no  soul  without  life. 
Life  and  soul  are  not  identical  but  the  latter  may 
be  conceived  as  a  species  of  the  former.  The  crea- 
tive energy  in  the  plant  and  animal  is  an  adumbra- 
tion of  the  spiritual  but  only  in  man  is  there  true 
soul  activity. 

Pedagogical  Inference. — This  doctrine  of  life  and 
self-activity  has  a  pedagogical  inference  as  it 
furnishes  a  basis  for  a  rational  system  of  education. 
Dr.  A.  T.  Ormond  in  ^^  Basal  Concepts  in  Phi- 
losophy'^  gives  us  the  fundamental  process  in 
education: 


THE  PROBLEM  263 

"A  science  of  pedagogy,  in  order  to  be  adequate,  must  have  two 
ideas  as  its  basis;  namely,  first,  the  idea  of  self -activity  as  the 
central  category  of  the  soul's  life,  and,  secondly,  the  idea  of  a 
development  of  the  soul's  activities  and  powers.  The  first  idea 
conceives  the  soul  as  actuality,  the  second  as  potence.  Now,  there 
is  needed,  in  order  that  pedagogy  may  become  a  real  science,  such 
a  conception  of  the  soul  as  will  make  a  rational  synthesis  of  the 
category  of  self-activity  and  development  possible.  ...  In 
the  light  of  this  theory,  it  is  made  clear  that  the  process  of  soul- 
experience  is  a  perpetual  struggle  of  a  thinking  principle  of  spiritual 
individuality  to  overcome  and  transform  an  empirical  nature  that 
is  dominated  by  mechanical  categories  and  laws.  It  also  becomes 
intelligible,  that  this  process  should  give  rise  to  an  evolution  of 
the  soul's  powers  which  follows  the  order  of  the  development  of 
actuality  out  of  potence.  This  order,  as  the  process  of  nature 
indicates,  is  from  mechanism  up  to  spirit.  .  .  .  All  education 
is,  teleologically,  a  spiritual  function  and  must  have  as  its  end  the 
awakening  and  development  of  the  free  self-activity  of  the  human 
spirit.  This  free  self-activity  exists  largely  at  first 
in  a  state  of  potency,  and  must  be  developed  by  a  j^^  pg^ago^ 
process  which  will  lead  it  from  the  mechanical  up  to 
the  spiritual.  .  .  .  Causation  begins  to  dominate  the  growing 
inteUigence  of  the  child  as  a  rational  norm,  which  develops  in  it 
the  historical  consciousness  and  sends  it  out  in  a  perpetual  search 
for  the  efficient  and  final  antecedents  of  things.  .  .  .  Now,  we 
conceive  that  the  ground  principle  of  the  secondary  and  higher 
education  is  to  be  found  in  this  category  of  reflective  reason  in 
which  the  self-active  spirit  first  achieves  a  rational  standing-ground 
of  its  own  as  a  free  rational  and  personal  agent;  and  the  great 
business  of  the  secondary  and  higher  education  will,  therefore,  be 
the  development  of  this  rational  principle  out  of  potence  into 
actuality.  For  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  while  the  end  of  all 
culture  is  the  quickening  of  the  spirit,  its  pedagogical  methods  and 
the  instruments  it  uses  must  adapt  themselves  to  the  stages  of 
an  evolution. " 

It  is  the  function  of  education  to  develop  the 
budding  soul  into  a  well-rounded  life  and  to  trans- 
form the  hidden  power  lying  dormant  in  the  in- 


264  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

dividual  into  pure  actuality.  There  is  implanted 
within  every  individual  a  spiritual  principle  which 
is  immanent  in  the  world  and  education  should 
reconcile  these  two  kindred  forces.  The  school 
becomes  an  important  factor  in  human  evolution 
when  it  assists  the  individual  in  constructing  an 
ideal  world  of  experience  based  upon  the  order, 
uniformity  and  intelligence  of  objective  existence. 
The  reign  of  law  and  the  reign  of  purpose  both 
presuppose  a  divine  intelligence  which  pervades  all 
things  and  is  the  hidden  power  of  the  universe. 
Education  is  given  a  cosmic  significance  when  it 
binds  nature,  mind  and  God  into  one  organic  system 
of  knowledge. 


XVII. 
THE  TENSION  OP  HUMAN  LIFE. 

The  fundamental  truth  underlying  the  history 
of  thought  is,  the  universe  is  alive,  and  is  a  dynami- 
cal organism  constantly  struggling  for  a  more 
perfect  realization  of  itself.  In  penetrating  into 
the  hidden  meaning  of  the  world  it  is  found  to  be, 
in  the  last  analysis,  a  powerful  energy  which  is  ever 
converting  possibilities  into  actualities  and  is  a 
purposive  activity  looking  forward  to  an  end. 
There  is  an  intelligent  order  in  the  world  which  has 
its  sequence  in  human  life  and  is  the  guiding  prin- 
ciple in  human  activities. 

In  the  innermost  constitution  of  all  organic 
existence  there  is  an  ever  present  struggle  between 
the  old  and  the  new,  between  the  real  and  the 
ideal,  and  between  what  is  and  what  ought  to  be. 
These  mysterious  processes  are  ''God's  way  of  doing 
things.''  All  natural  law  is  merely  the  law  of  God's 
own  being.  Every  force  in  the  world  has  its  origin 
in  the  great  Primal  Force,  and  all  energy  from  the 
Infinite  and  Eternal  Energy.     One  of  the  Modem 

greatest  conclusions  of  modern  thought  Conclusion 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  all  life,  all  growth, 
all  development  are  due  to  a  continuous,  progres- 
sive change  in  accordance  to  certain  natural  laws 
and  by  means  of  a  resident  power  immanent  in 
things.    In  every  acorn  there  is  a  pulsating,  poten- 

265 


266  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

tial  oak.  Life  and  growth  in  the  oak  consist  of  a 
series  of  changes  by  which  the  potential  oak  becomes 
the  actual  oak  and  by  which  the  old  form  is  destroyed 
and  a  new  being  comes  forth.  This  tension  is  caused 
by  a  force  residing  in  the  acorn,  in  the  soil  and  in 
the  sunlight.  This  force  is  the  heart-beat  of  the 
world  and  is  akin  to  God  himself.  Lowell  thinks 
that,  *^ Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  might." 

This  tension  in  the  vegetable  world  is  a  funda- 
mental law  of  all  organic  life  and  exists  also  in  the 
animal  kingdom.  Tennyson  happily  explains  the 
pranks  of  nature  in  his  stanza  upon  the  dragon- 
fly and  sets  forth  a  true  philosophy  of  life.  Notice 
here  and  there  how  charmingly  nature  realizes  her 
Fundamental  idcals  iu  this  mysterious  way!  Notice 
^^  how  beautifully  the  chrysalis  unfolds  into 

the  butterfly!  Notice  how  joyfully  the  warbler 
breaks  its  shell  and  goes  forth  on  its  mission  of 
song!  Why  does  the  wounded  eaglet  chained  to 
earth  look  up  to  heaven  with  a  tear  in  his  noble  eye? 
How  does  it  happen  that  the  lark  ascends  and 
sings?    What  causes  the  poet  to  sing: 

"Ethereal  minstrel,  pilgrim  of  the  sky, 

Dost  thou  despise  the  earth  where  cares  abound?" 

These  questions  can  be  answered  by  saying  that 
within  the  dragonfly,  chrysalis,  eaglet,  lark  and  even 
the  poet  there  is  a  resident  force,  an  immanent 
something  which  moves  each  to  the  realization  of 
the  purpose  for  which  it  was  created.  In  each  there 
is  a  purposive  adaption  for  some  end  to  be  realized 


THE  TENSION  OF  HUMAN  LIFE  267 

which  implies  that  there  is  a  supreme  intelligence 
in  the  deeps  of  the  world. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  in  his  '^ Compensation" 
states  the  law  of  the  world  and,  therefore,  the  law 
of  human  life: — action  and  reaction,  darkness  and 
light,  heat  and  cold,  ebb  and  flow,  male  and  female, 
inspiration  and  expiration,  systole  and  diastole, 
attraction  and  repulsion,  matter  and  spirit,  sub- 
jective and  objective.  While  there  is  an  inner 
dualism  in  the  world  there  is  also  a  unity  lying 
beneath  the  differences.  The  mind  recognizes  a 
fundamental  reality  in  the  constitution  of  things 
which  manifests  itself  in  a  dual  activity.  The  Law 
In  both  fauna  and  flora  there  is  an  abid-  ofLife 

ing  energy  seeking  perfection  through  contradictory 
elements.  The  upward  life  tendency  is  always  a 
tension  between  the  thing's  lower  and  higher  nature. 
There  is  not  only  a  real  conflict  in  the  very  nature 
of  things,  but  there  is  also  an  interaction  and 
causal  relation  binding  things  into  a  rational  system. 
The  structure  of  both  thought  and  thing  reveals 
the  fact  that  there  is  a  connecting  power  which 
organizes  differences  into  unity.  Dr.  Borden  P. 
Bowne  in  his  ^^ Theism"  says: 

"We  replace  the  transitive  causality  playing  between  things  by 
an  immanent  causality  in  an  all-embracing,  imitary  being." 

Human  Action  and  Growth. — The  great  law  of 
polarity  running  through  the  lower  world  is  the 
main-spring  of  all  human  action  and  human  growth. 
The  plants  and  animals  realize  their  ideals  without 


268  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

plan  or  purpose.  Man  has  not  only  inherited  this 
tendency  toward  higher  life,  but  has  also  the  ability 
to  set  up  his  own  ideals  and  by  force  of  will  and 
intelligence,  transmute  himself  into  those  ideals. 
Within  man's  soul  there  spontaneously  appear 
visions  of  a  fairer  life  that  he  has  not  yet  attained. 
These  ideals  and  aspirations  create  within  him  a 
longing  for  more  life,  higher  attainments  and  nobler 
conceptions  of  living.  It  is  true  that  any  human 
efTort,  though  it  be  unsuccessful,  may  change  the 
whole  life,  and  the  ideal  although  not  realized  still 
becomes  a  powerful  influence  in  molding  character 
and  conduct.  In  order  to  understand  the  true  nature 
and  meaning  of  an  individual  the  process  is  not  clin- 
ical, but  is  a  searching  analysis  of  the  soul's  inner- 
most ideals.  To  understand  the  significance  of  a  life, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  a  keen,  inquiring  insight  into 
the  individuaFs  longings,  yearnings  and  aspirations. 
Man's  Inner  and  Outer  Nature. — A  close  study 
of  human  life  reveals  the  fact  that  man's  outer 
progress  springs  from  his  inner  longings  and 
yearnings.  What  man  realizes,  man  first  idealizes. 
The  actualized  individual  is  first  a  potential  being. 
The  Shakespeare  you  know  is  the  Shakespeare 
transformed  by  an  ideal.  The  Raphael  you  know 
is  the  matchless  painter  transformed  by  an  ideal. 
The  Edison  and  Marconi  you  know  are  the  great 
scientists  transformed  by  ideals  in  electricity.  The 
outer  progress  of  these  individuals  has  its  origin  in 
their  inner  thought  and  high  endeavor.  There  is 
a  natural  tension  within  the  depths  of  man's  soul 


THE  TENSION  OF  HUMAN  LIFE  269 

that  causes  him  to  crave  more  life,  broader  and  more 
humanitarian  conceptions  of  life  and  to  demand  for 
himself  the  highest  possibilities  within  his  reach. 

If  there  be  a  human  being  destitute  of  ideals, 
devoid  of  aspirations,  without  longings  and  yearn- 
ings— that  one  is  already  dead.  There  is  nothing 
so  sad  and  tragic  as  the  death  of  the  soul's  ideal. 
There  is  not  anything  so  destructive  to  life  and 
success  as  the  failure  of  the  heart  to  be  attuned  to 
the  music  of  a  noble  ideal.  However,  there  is 
nothing  so  grand  as  a  fertilization  of  all  that  is 
true,  beautiful  and  good,  and  nothing  so  worthy 
to  be  attained  as  a  clearly  thought  out  purpose  of 
life.  By  fertilizing  the  higher  life  by  the 
dust  and  ashes  of  the  lower,  man  reaches 
that  perfection  which  is  the  goal  of  all  human 
endeavor.  There  is  no  incentive  so  powerful  to 
keep  one  on  the  right  track  as  to  struggle  to  attain 
a  high  ideal.  It  is  the  headlight  down  the  path  of 
life  that  illuminates  the  journey  and  makes  life 
worth  living.  A  true  life  is  a  life  of  effort,  a  struggle 
toward  higher  attainments,  a  tension  between  the 
possible  and  the  actual,  a  warfare  between  the  lower 
and  higher  nature,  a  polarity  between  what  I  am 
capable  of  becoming  and  what  I  have  already 
attained.     Some  one  has  declared: 

"The  idea  must  be  far  enough  above  us  to  keep  us  looking  up 
toward  it  all  the  time,  and  it  must  be  far  enough  in  advance  of  us 
to  keep  us  struggHng  toward  it  to  the  end  of  life. " 

The  Universal  Tension.  —  There  is  a  universal 
tension  enthroned  in  the  innermost  essence  of  our 


270  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

being.  We  have  inherited  this  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  life  from  the  world  order  and  are,  therefore, 
essentially  related  to  the  ultimate  origin  of  things. 
It  should  be  our  highest  glory  to  live  every  moment 
of  our  lives  in  harmony  with  this  divine  principle. 
Dying  The  life  of  a  spiritual  being  is  the  continual 

To  Live  process  of  dying  to  live.  Every  step  in 
the  life  of  the  spiritual  is  due  to  an  antagonistic 
process  of  the  natural.  As  the  natural  self  dies  the 
spiritual  self  is  born.  To  die  to  live  is  as  true  as  it 
is  paradoxical.     The  true  doctrine  of  life  is — 

"He  that  findeth  his  life  shall  lose  it." 

Self-realization  is  in  and  through  self-sacrifice. 
Man  is  a  rational  being  and  has  the  power  to  trans- 
form his  potence  into  actuality  and  to  pass  beyond 
the  state  of  immediacy  into  the  realm  of  higher  life. 
It  is  the  nature  of  spirit  to  extend  itself  beyond  itself 
to  its  otherness.  Man  as  a  spirit  is  separated  from 
his  natural  being  in  which  there  is  imperfection  and 
is  gradually  led  to  realize  his  spiritual  freedom 
which  is  perfection.  By  means  of  knowledge  and 
reflection,  he  finds  out  that  he  is  not  what  he  ought 
to  be  and  hence  increases  his  struggle  to  realize  the 
highest  life  possible. 

The  true  life  of  a  human  being  should  be  a  process 
of  perpetually  becoming,  ever  striving,  always  pur- 
TheTrue  sulug,  coustautly  Struggling  and  joyfully 
^'^®  attaining.     In  order  to  attain   this   high 

ideal  of  life  we  must  carefully  watch  how  we  live. 
We  must  store  our  minds  and  store  our  soul  with 


THE  TENSION  OF  HUMAN  LIFE  271 

the  sweet  and  -wholesome  things  of  life.  What  is 
implanted  in  the  soul  as  the  years  pass  by,  is  carried 
to  the  grave.  It  is  sometimes  thought  that  you 
can  break  a  law  of  nature.  The  laws  of  nature  are 
as  immutable  and  eternal  as  the  everlasting  God 
himself.  You  cannot  break  a  law  of  nature,  but  if 
you  continue  to  run  counter  to  it,  it  will  break  you, 
physically,  mentally  and  morally.  Edward  Howard 
Griggs  has  truly  asserted,  that  to  exist  is  to  struggle; 
to  struggle  means  self-realization;  self-realization 
means  personality.  The  life  of  human  personality  is 
a  life  of  growth,  a  life  of  love,  a  hunger  for  truth,  the 
devotion  to  ideals  and  the  reverence  for  principles. 
The  Highest  Ideals  of  Life. — The  loftiest  attain- 
ments reached  by  mankind  have  been  realized  by 
those  thinkers  and  humanitarians  who  live  most 
truly  and  completely:  Socrates,  Bruno,  Saint 
Francis  of  Assisi,  Martin  Luther,  Paul  and  Christ. 
It  seems  to  be  a  law  of  life  that  the  world's  advanced 
thinkers  and  leaders  must  suffer  for  the  Advanced 
doctrine  taught.     Socrates  said:    ''There  ^^^^^^ 

is  no  danger  of  my  being  the  last.''  The  matchless 
philosopher  while  talking  of  death,  immortality  and 
the  hope  beyond  deliberately  drank  the  cup  of 
poison.  Bruno  was  an  advanced  thinker  of  funda- 
mental problems  and  his  doctrine  was  far  ahead 
of  his  time.  Many  years  after  he  was  condemned 
to  death  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 
Martin  Luther  stood  firm  in  his  doctrine  and  said: 

"I  cannot  and  will  not  recant,  God  help  me." 


272  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  life  of  Saint  Francis  of  Assisi  has  many 
important  lessons  to  teach  to  humanity.  His 
earnestness,  sincereness,  sweetness,  tenderness,  keen 
spiritual  insight  and  close  sympathy  for  lowly  life 
make  him  a  representative  of  the  most  ideal  doc- 
trine of  life.  He  set  forth  the  following  ideals  of 
life:  To  be  good,  to  keep  life  pure,  to  keep  one's 
spirit  sweet  and  attractive,  to  try  to  be  true  to  one's 
insight,  to  express  in  personal  life  the  noblest  ideals 
and  to  be  happy  in  doing  good  and  making  others 
happy.  After  proclaiming  the  sublime  doctrines  of 
life  Paul  suffered  for  the  great  truths  enunciated. 
The  life  of  the  Great  Teacher  was  a  life  of  the 
spiritual,  a  devotion  to  truth,  a  life  of  love  and  the 
embodiment  of  the  ideal  of  all  ideals. 

The  problem  of  life  is  to  know  the  objective  world 
which  must  flow  back  into  man's  nature  if  he  real- 
izes his  true  destiny.  To  understand  the  content 
of  our  life,  we  must  go  beyond  ourselves  and  peep 
into  the  universal  thought  of  the  world  which  is 
the  other  self  we  are  struggling  to  attain.  The 
life  of  reason  is  beyond  us  yet  in  us.  That  to  which 
we  surrender  ourselves  is  in  fact  our  real 
self.  An  impulse  for  higher  life  is  grounded 
in  the  very  nature  of  thinking  beings.  The  soul 
thirsts  for  something  beyond  itself,  for  something 
to  complete  itself  and  fulfill  its  mission.  It  is  an  im- 
manent principle  of  the  human  soul  to  hunger  for  the 
truth  which  is  to  make  it  free.  The  highest  ideal 
possible  in  human  life  is  to  realize  the  consciousness 
of  our  own  freedom. 


XVIII. 

THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE 

The  life  process  may  be  interpreted  scientific- 
ally, philosophically  and  poetically.  The  poetic 
interpretation  of  human  life  reveals  the  profound 
mysteries  of  human  existence. 

"Literature  is  an  artistic  expression  of  life;  art  is  the  mode  of 
expression;    life  is  the  thing  expressed." 

The  genetic  principle  which  creates  literature  is 
the  throbbing,  pulsating  life  of  the  author.  Liter- 
ature is  not  only  a  spontaneous  outgrowth  of  human 
life,  but  it  is  also  the  best  revealer  and 

1  <•  i  1       T  c  •  i^      1  r  Literature 

interpreter  known  of  the  life  process  itself. 
The  constructive  energy  of  life  is  the  productive 
force  in  literature;  namely,  a  struggle  between  the 
real  and  ideal.  Literature  is  born  through  that 
spiritual  activity  in  which  the  soul  is  seeking  self- 
realization.  The  innermost  core  of  human  life  is 
revealed  and  expressed  in  literature.  To  study 
literature  assists  the  individual  in  actualizing  his 
possibilities.  It  compares  our  real  condition  with 
our  ideal  condition  and  gives  us  an  impetus  to  at- 
tain the  greatest  possibilities  slumbering  in  our 
soul.  The  poet  idealizes  life  and  awakens  within 
each  literary  student  a  longing  for  all  that  is  truest, 
best  and  noblest. 

The   Psychology  of   Poetry. — By  studying  a  poem 
we  are  able  to  gain  a  clear  insight  into  the  spirit- 
18  273 


274  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROOESS 

ual  nature  of  the  author.  Poetry  is  an  interest- 
ing and  comprehensive  text-book  upon  the  subject 
of  Psychology.  We  may  speculate  concerning  the 
real  nature  of  the  human  soul;  we  philosophize 
concerning  the  origin  and  nature  of  human  knowl- 
edge; we  may  observe  and  interpret  the  facts  of 
human  consciousness;  we  may  make  laboratory  and 
physiological  tests  of  mental  life;  but  as  literature 
is  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  human  soul,  it  is,  par 
excellencey  the  greater  revealer,  interpreter  and 
translator  of  the  life  process. 

In    poetry    the    author    gives    utterance    to    the 
deepest    expressions    of    his    heart    and    soul    and 
reveals  his  motives,  thoughts,  feelings  and  volitions 
and  hence  externalizes  the  inner  workings 
s«^*-prophet   ^^   ^^s   spiritual   nature.      The   poet   is   a 
soul-prophet    and    gives    us    in    his    pro- 
ductions the  quintessence  of  his  life.     In  literature 
we    follow    the    actual    movements    of    the    inner, 
throbbing   soul.      In    psychology    we   study    man's 
spirit    by    introspection,    analysis,    induction,    dis- 
section and  experimentation.     The  poet  alone  has 
that  penetrative  insight,  that  keenness  of  thought, 
that  inquiring  attitude  of  mind  which  enables  him 
to   probe  into  the   hidden  recesses   of  the   human 
heart  and  the  human  soul.    He  is  a  seer  and  has  that 
divine  vision  which  enables  him  to  penetrate  into 
the  mysteries  and  complexities  and  subtle- 
ties of  soul  life.    The  poet  opens  the  win- 
dows of  the  soul   and   watches   the   mystic   forces 
of  mind   move  hither  and  thither.     He   penetrates 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE         275 

into  the  inner  chamber  of  consciousness  and  dis- 
covers the  man  invisible  which  is  made  visible  in 
literary  form.  He  is  a  past  master  in  picturing  the 
motives,  desires,  aspirations  and  the  whole  ma- 
chinery of  human  consciousness. 
Edward  Howard  Griggs  tells  us: 

"Life  itself  is  becoming  a  religion  to-day.  We  are  learning  that 
there  is  nothing  more  sacred  than  a  human  being;  and  that  the 
most  tragic,  pathetic  or  exalted  motives  are  those  drawn  from  the 
universal,  yet  intimately  personal  phases  of  daily  experience. 
Wordsworth  felt  the  dim  presence  of  the  new  inspira- 
tion, and  stammered  it  haltingly  in  the  most  exquisite 
of  his  unequaled  works.  Carlyle  lived  under  its  brooding  presence, 
but  incapable  of  voicing  its  positive  message  except  in  fragments, 
could  only  storm  against  its  enemies.  Shelley  was  the  singer  of  its 
subtlety,  Emerson  the  prophet  of  its  exalted  spirituality,  Goethe 
the  expression  of  its  masterful  self-affirmation,  Browning  the  seer 
of  its  exultant  love  and  joy. " 

Browning  ''the  subtle-souled  psychologist  was 
the  supreme  analyst  of  the  human  soul  as  shown  in 
the  following  quotation: 

"Truth  is  within  ourselves;  it  takes  no  rise 
From  outward  things,  whatever  you  may  believe. 
There  is  an  innermost  center  in  us  all, 
Where  truth  abides  in  fulness." 

Browning  also  explains  the  nature  of  knowledge: 

"To  know 
Rather  consists  in  opening  out  a  way 
Whence  the  imprisoned  splendor  may  escape, 
Than  in  effecting  entry  for  a  light 
Supposed  to  be  without. " 

The  poetical  mind  has  that  attribute  which 
Worsdworth  calls,  '^The  vision  and  faculty  divine/* 


276  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Browning  not  only  analyzes  the  activities  of  the 
soul,  but  gives  us  a  clue  to  the  fundamental  process 
in  education. 

To  understand  Tennyson  is  to  study,  to  inter- 
pret, and  to  systematize  his  thoughts  on  God, 
Freedom,  and  Immortality.  Tennyson  was  in- 
tensely interested  in  the  deeper  problems  of  human 
life.     He  was  inclined  to  inquire — 

"into  the  laws 
Of  life  and  death,  and  things  that  seem, 
And  things  that  be,  and  analyze 
Our  double  nature,  and  compare 
All  creeds  till  we  have  found  the  one, 
If  one  there  be. " 

Tennyson    took    the    position    that    God    in    his 

essential  nature  and  being  is  unknowable.    He  is  not 

an  object  of  knowledge,  but  an  object  of  faith.     He 

makes  a  distinction  between  the  knowing 

Knowing  . 

And  mind  and  the  believing  mind.    He  asserts 

e  levmg  ^^^^  ^^^  aguostic  is  right  in  teaching  that 
God  is  unknowable,  but  is  wrong  in  saying  the 
human  mind  is  shut  out  from  God.  Faith  tran- 
scends reason  and  lays  hold  on  God.  Knowledge 
deals  with  the  phenomenal,  but  faith,  the  noumenal. 
In  Memoriam,  he  writes: 

"We  have  but  faith:  we  cannot  know; 

For  knowledge  is  of  things  we  see; 

And  yet  we  trust  it  comes  from  thee, 
A  beam  in  darkness:  let  it  grow. " 

In  '*The  Two  Voices,^'  Tennyson  discusses  the 
problem  of  human  life.     He  declares  the  cure  of 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE         277 

the  ills  of  life  is  more  life — larger,  fuller,  completer 
life.— 

"More  life  and  fuller  that  I  want." 

As  an  idealist,  he  reduced  the  external  world  to 
a  spiritual  principle.  He  once  exclaimed,  '^depend 
upon  it,  the  spiritual  is  the  real."    Again 

•  .   .  Idealist 

he   says,      spirit  seems  to  me  to  be  the 
reality  of  the  world."     The  only  reality  to  Tenny- 
son is  spirituality.    Matter  is  merely  an  outer  mani- 
festation of  spirit. — Infinite  Spirit  or  finite  spirit. — 

"the  power  to  feel  I  am  I. " 

Matthew  Arnold  defines  poetry  as  a  criticism  of 
life.  It  criticizes  the  real  life  of  the  individual  in 
contrast  with  the  ideal  life  he  hopes  to  attain. 
*'The  mute  inglorious  Milton"  was  one  of  the  sub- 
limest  of  all  minds.  He  contemplated  and  described 
some  of  the  grandest  themes  of  human  life.  The 
multiplicity  and  variety  of  human  life  is  expressed 
by  the  many-sidedness  of  the  poetic  mind.  poetic 

Dryden    had    the    power    of    reasoning.  insight 

Wordsworth  taught  the  symbolism  of  nature. 
Swift  showered  abuse  and  ridicule  upon  his  enemies. 
Burns's  heart  was  attuned  to  the  eternal  melodies  of 
the  universe.  Coleridge  was  inspired  by  that  divine 
breath  which  penetrates  the  hidden  mysteries  of 
life.  Hawthorne  created  the  model  novel  through 
a  knowledge  of  the  psychological  process  of  his 
own  inner  consciousness.  He  made  a  deep  study 
of  the  soul  and  is  thoroughly  prepared  to  interpret 


278  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  real  life  process.  Longfellow  has  been  called 
the  poet  of  sympathy  and  through  his  '^  Psalm  of 
Life"  and  other  poems  he  reveals  and  interprets 
the  many  joys  and  sorrows  of  real  life.  In  every 
Poetic  fiber  of  Whittier's  being  there  is  a  poetic 

Interpretation  exprcssion.  Hc  is  Said  to  be  not  only  a 
real  poet,  but  all  poet.  The  imagination  of  his 
brain  and  the  affection  of  his  heart  were  the  chief 
characteristics  of  Holmes.  George  Eliot  combined 
the  speculative  mind  with  the  realistic  imagination. 
She  had  the  ability  to  analyze  the  deepest  psy- 
chological problems.  A  few  of  the  chief  attributes 
of  Goldsmith  were  delicate  compassion,  sympathy, 
generousness,  humor,  forgiveness  and  a  benevolent 
spirit  smiling  on  all.  So  long  had  the  inner  eye  of 
Keats  been  fixed  upon  the  beautiful,  so  long  had 
he  loved  the  visions  splendid,  that  his  soul  took 
on  the  loveliness  which  he  contemplated.  Some  one 
has  said  that  the  lines  of  the  poet's  face  were  chiseled 
into  beauty  by  those  sculptors  called  ideas  and 
thoughts.  Emerson  makes  the  statement  that  we 
grow  into  the  likeness  of  others  by  thinking  the 
same  thoughts. 

Channing  has  well  said,  ^*It  is  forbidden  for  me 
to  write  or  speak,  but  to  aspire  to  be,  to  study 
hard,  and  to  think  quietly,  to  act  freely,  and  talk 
gently.  In  a  word  let  the  spiritual  grow  up  to 
perfection."  When  Arnold  finds  some  one  ready 
to  graduate  he  whispers  '^One  thing  thou  lackest. 
Let  all  thy  life  become  one  eager  pursuit  of  knowl- 
edge."    Carlyle  tells  us  each  new  epoch  in  his  life 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE         279 

began  with  the  acquaintance  of  some  great  man. 
Only  mind  can  quicken  mind;  only  heart  can 
quicken  heart. 

Perhaps  the  deepest  literary  interpretation  of  life 
is  found  in  what  is  known  as  the  Literary  Bibles — 
Homer,  Dante,  Goethe,  Shakespeare. 

Homer. — Homer's  '^ Iliad"  discusses  the  most 
sacred  principle  of  the  life  process — the  family. 
The  poet  fathoms  the  deeps  of  human  existence. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  dualism,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  that  between  the  human  and  divine. 
These  two  worlds  are  separating,  yet  intermingling, 
communing  yet  differing.  This  epic  not  only  repre- 
sents a  struggle  between  the  human  and  divine 
but  between  the  Occident  and  Orient.  The  purpose 
of  this  warfare  was  to  restore  Helen  to  her  true 
institutional  life.  However,  this  was  not  a  war 
for  the  restitution  of  an  individual  woman.  Helen 
stood  for  a  universal  principle  of  social  life.  The 
beautiful  Helen  represents  the  race  process,  the 
restoration,  civilization,  freedom  and  the  preser- 
vation of  the  home.  This  poem  represents  the 
heart-beat  of  humanity.  The  many  conflicts, 
struggles  and  tensions  in  this  poem  once  more 
emphasize  the  eternal  law  of  the  universe.  The 
key-note  to  all  existence,  to  all  life,  to  all  human 
life  in  particular  is  a  tension  between  the  possible 
and  the  actual  and  the  final  word  of  all  existence  is 
self-realization,  freedom.  The  creative,  architec- 
tonic principle  of  all  literature  is  the  soul  trying 
to  attain  more  life. 


280  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Dante. — ''The  Divine  Comedy'^  treats  the  life 
process  as  the  process  of  death.  It  discusses  the 
two  lives  of  man,  one  of  matter,  and  the  other  of 
spirit.  It  interprets  the  two  fundamental  prin- 
ciples, thou  shalt  surely  die,  and  thou  shalt  surely 
live.  Dante  teaches  that  the  final  purpose  of  man 
is  to  shuffle  off  animality  and  become  a  spirit. 
It  unifies  the  temporal  life  process  with  the  ever- 
lasting life  process,  the  seen  with  the  unseen.  Out 
of  this  dual  process  in  the  poem  arises  a  harmony. 
The  theme  of  the  Divine  Comedy  is  universal  and 
intensely  human,  and  ''tells  the  tale  of  how  man 
makes  himself  eternal. '' 

Goethe. — "Europe^s  sagest  head^^  in  comment- 
ing on  "Faust"  often  spoke  of  the  self-unfolding 
idea  of  the  poem.  It  is  constructed  according  to 
a  law  that  is  found  in  the  poem  itself.  In  the  first 
soliloquy  Faust  is  represented  as  a  man  who  has 
spent  years  studying  philosophy,  jurisprudence, 
medicine  and  theology.  He  finally  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  man  cannot  know  truth.  However 
it  is  by  means  of  knowledge  that  he  denies  knowl- 
edge, but  at  the  same  time  it  is  by  means  of  aspira- 
tion that  he  affirms  the  validity  of  truth.  The 
theme  of  "  Faust ''  is  the  theme  of  all  poetry  and 
philosophy — the  problem  of  knowledge. 

Shakespeare. — "The  thousand-souled "  poet  was 
the  prince  of  psychologists.  He  had  that  penetra- 
tive genius  which  enabled  him  to  analyze  and 
dissect  the  human  soul.  More  can  be  learned 
concerning  the  intricacies  and  activities  of  man^s 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE         281 

spiritual  nature  by  reading  Shakespeare  than  by 
studying  any  ordinary  treatise  on  psychology. 
Shakespeare  in  his  'Ho  be  or  not  to  be^'  strikes  at 
the  fundamental  problem  of  human  life.  It  repre- 
sents the  irresistible  conflict  between  optimism  and 
pessimism.  There  is  nothing  in  the  English  language 
that  excels  Hamlet^s  description  of  man: 

"What  a  piece  of  work  is  a  man!  how  noble  in  reason!  how 
infinite  in  faculty!  in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admir- 
able! in  action  how  like  an  angel!  in  apprehension  how  like  a  God! 
the  beauty  of  the  world!  the  paragon  of  animals!" 

In  fighting  life's  battles,  we  might  do  well  to 
follow  Lady  Macbeth,  ''screw  your  courage  to  the 
sticking  place"  and  again,  ''what's  done  is  done'' 
and  frequently  can  never  be  remedied.  According 
to  Cassius  "I  cannot  tell  what  you  and  others  may 
think  of  this  life,  for  my  single  self  I  had  as  lief 
not  be  as  live  to  be  in  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  my- 
self."   Again  is  the  true  life  process  interpreted: — 

"The  fault  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars, 
But  in  ourselves  that  we  are  imderlings. " 

Shakespeare  in  his  literary  productions  has  made 
a  complete  analysis  of  the  life  process.  He  has 
portrayed  every  phase  of  human  life,  every  emo- 
tion, every  thought,  and  every  life  tendency.  He 
has  made  a  complete  interpretation  of  human 
existence  and  has  expressed  every  conceivable 
intellectual,  moral,  social,  and  religious  phase  of 
human  life  and  human  development. 


282  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Trowbridge  has  fully  described  the  real  process 
of  life  and  gives  below  the  practical  and  essential 
doctrine  of  human  activity. 

"Give  him  a  lift,  don't  kneel  in  prayer, 
Nor  moralize  at  his  despair. 

The  man  is  down  and  his  great  need 

Is  ready  help  not  prayer  and  creed. 
Tis  time  when  womids  are  naked  and  healed, 
That  the  inward  spirit  be  revealed, 

But  what  ere  the  spirit  be. 

Mean  words  and  hollow  mockery. 
One  grain  of  aid  just  now  is  more 
Than  tons  of  saintly  lore. 

Pray,  if  you  must,  within  your  heart. 

But  give  him  a  lift,  give  him  a  start. 
The  world  is  full  of  good  advice. 
Of  prayer  and  preaching  nice, 

But  generous  souls  that  aid  mankind 

Are  like  diamonds  hard  to  find. 
Give  hke  a  Christian,  speak  in  creeds, 

And  he  shall  wear  a  regal  crown, 

Who  gives  a  Hft  when  men  are  down. " 


THE  UNIVERSAL  PROCESS 
XIX. 

THE  LOGICAL   PROCESS:    IDEA 

The  school  process,  the  teaching  process  and  the  life 
process  must  finally  be  grounded  in  a  universal 
process.  These  educational  processes  are  given  a 
deep  significance  by  connecting  them  with  world 
relations.  The  abiding  energy  in  the  world  is  the 
formative  principle  in  education.  That  which 
creates  the  world  and  makes  it  rational,  organizes 
the  school  and  makes  teaching  spiritual.  Every 
factor  in  the  school  and  every  movement  in  teach- 
ing and  life  are  related  to  an  eternal  process  which 
gives  unity  to  difference.  Educational  principles 
should  be  based  upon  a  world  movement  in  order 
to  be  made  fundamental  and  abiding.  The  spiritual 
principle  creating  the  school  is  actualized  in  teach- 
ing and  life  and  universalized  in  the  world  process. 

The  World  Process. — The  true  reality  of  the 
educational  process  and  the  abiding  element  of 
the  world  constitute  one  universal  process  grounded 
in  reason.  Reason  is  the  underlying  principle  of 
all  thought  and  all  things  and  is  the  substratum  of 
every  institutional  activity. 

"The  absolute  or  logical  idea  exists  first  as  a  system  of  ante- 
mundane  concepts,  then  it  descends  into  the  unconscious  sphere 
of  nature,  awakens  to  self-consciousness  in  man,  realizes  its  content 
in  social  institutions,  in  order,  finally,  in  art,  religion  and  science  to 
return  to  itself  enriched  and  completed." 

Falckenberg. 

283 


284  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

From  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  thought  a 
unity  of  the  world  has  been  presupposed.  This 
unitary  principle  has  been  conceived  to  be  a  single 
substance,  a  mathematical  relation,  a  flux  of  things 
and  finally  an  immaterial  reality.  The  ultimate 
problem  of  the  ancient  thinker  was  to  understand 
Unitary  thc  world  as  purposivc  and  the  product 
Principles  ^f  spirit,  and  to  comprehend  the  under- 
lying rationality  of  the  universe.  The  final  solu- 
tion of  the  cosmic  problem  is  made  by  rooting  the 
thing  world  in  the  thought  world.  Unless  the  law 
of  thought  equals  the  law  of  things,  no  interpreta- 
tion can  be  made  of  the  world.  In  reading  the  book 
of  nature  we  translate  the  world  thing  into  a  thought 
thing.  This  process  is  possible  only  upon  the  as- 
sumption that  there  is  a  universal  reason  which 
connects  the  two  series.  To  know  the  world  is  to 
think  the  world  and  to  think  the  world  is  to  unify 
the  rationality  of  mind  with  the  meaning  of  objec- 
tive existence. 

Thought  can  think  the  world  only  by  presup- 
posing that  they  have  a  common  rational  origin. 
The  thinker  behind  the  world  and  the  thinker 
behind  the  thing  are  commensurable,  hence  a  uni- 
fication and  a  knowledge  of  the  world  become 
possible.  Since  the  world  without  and  thought 
within  have  a  common  element,  the  cosmic  order 
can  be  assimilated  by  finite  thought  to  the  extent 
of  its  capacity.  It  is  self-evident  to  all  that  the 
mind  can  never  know  anything  beyond  the  sphere 
of  thought.    If  the  world  be  knowable,  if  knowledge 


THE  LOGICAL  PROCESS:    IDEA  285 

be  possible,  then  nature  is  realized  mind  and  the 
thinker  finds  himself  in  the  thing. 

World  Knowledge. — A  knowledge  of  the  world 
is  based  upon  the  constructive  activity  of  the  mind 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  thing  series  and  also 
upon  the  fact  that  the  cosmic  order  is  an  expression 
of  supreme  thought  binding  the  two  into  a  rational 
coherence.  Both  thought  and  knowledge  owe  their 
existence  to  a  world  intelligence  which  makes 
things  thinkable  and  knowledge  possible.  The 
intelligence  in  the  world  to  become  knowledge  must 
be  transmuted  into  finite  mind  and  organized  by 
thought  into  rational  relations  corresponding  to 
the  outer  order.  The  meaning  in  the  world  series 
becomes  knowledge  in  the  thought  series  woridand 
in  and  through  a  universal,  spiritual  Thought 
connecting  energy.  A  knowledge  of  the  world  is 
obtained  by  the  mind  building  into  itself  a  knowl- 
edge structure  of  the  contents  of  things.  The 
thought  of  the  world  does  not  pass  into  the  think- 
ing mind,  as  you  would  pass  a  coin  to  another, 
but  through  the  constructive  energy  of  the  mind  it 
takes  on  to  itself  the  meaning  and  significance  of 
what  is  external  to  itself.  The  unification  which 
takes  place  in  thought  and  knowledge  is  not  a 
thing  unification,  but  a  meaning  unification.  In 
one  continuous  equation  the  laws  of  things  =  the 
laws  of  thought  =  the  laws  of  knowledge.  The 
world  which  the  mind  grasps  is  a  thought  world 
and  if  the  real  world  is  not  an  expression  of  thought 
and  does  not  have  an  intelligent  basis  it  is  cut  off 


286  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

from  all  relation  to  the  mind.  The  parallelism  of 
thought  and  thing  converges  into  a  bond  of  knowl- 
edge wholly  upon  the  hypothesis  that  the  thing 
series  has  an  organic  relation  to  the  thought  series. 
Knowledge  and  spiritual  freedom  are  attained  by 
the  mind  incorporating  into  its  own  constitution 
the  law,  order  and  intelligence  immanent  in  the 
world.  In  the  educational  process  the  mind  finds 
itself  in  the  world,  realizes  its  own  freedom  and 
bridges  the  chasm  between  the  thinking  mind  and 
the  intelligent  universe. 

The  Eternal  Reason. — The  primitive  idea  is  the 
eternal  reason  which  evolves  itself  into  a  world 
order  and  thought  series.  ''The  idea  itself  is  a 
dialectic  which  forever  divides  and  distinguishes  the 
self-identical  from  the  differentiated,  the  subjective 
from  the  objective,  the  finite  from  the  infinite, 
soul  from  body.  Only  on  these  terms  is  it  an 
eternal  creation,  eternal  vitality  and  eternal  spirit. '' 
Whatever  form  the  idea  may  assume,  whatever 
creation  the  idea  may  penetrate,  whatever  insti- 
tution the  idea  may  establish,  it  forever  remains 
reason.  It  is  the  central  principle  of  the  universe 
and  objectifies  itself  in  nature,  in  school,  in  teaching 
and  in  life.  The  idea  which  creates  the  world  of 
objective  reality  and  organizes  the  school  is  not  an 
immaterial  substance  bordering  upon  the 
Productive  mystical,  but  an  immanent  constructive 
power  working  out  in  actuality  all  the 
potentiality  slumbering  within  the  depths  of  the 
eternal  reason.    The  school  is  what  it  is  by  virtue  of 


THE  LOGICAL  PROCESS:    IDEA  287 

this  ideal  self-creating  principle  which  has  not  only 
the  power  of  initiation,  but  also  self-realization. 
This  element  in  the  school  is  causa  sui,  self-deter- 
mining, self-supporting,  and  self-explanatory.  This 
fundamental  principle  in  the  school  and  the  world  is 
the  living  spirit  of  all  that  is  actual,  pervading  all 
forms  of  activity  and  dominating  all  phases  of 
institutional  life.  It  has  the  essential  characteristic 
of  productiveness  and  underlies  all  literature,  sci- 
ence, art  and  education.  It  is  the  immanent  prin- 
ciple found  in  every  process  of  education  and  the 
substratum  of  all  world  existence.  The  heart  of  the 
school  beats  in  unison  with  the  heart  of  the  world. 

The  eternal  reason  is  the  connecting  factor  in 
every  process  of  the  school,  the  all-embracing  energy 
upon  which  the  teaching  process  depends  and  the 
fundamental  reality  sustaining  life  itself.  This 
universal  reason  is  a  cycle,  self-return,  subject- 
object,  the  connecting  link  in  the  great  educational 
chain  and  the  paradisaical  state  to  which  all  educa- 
tive forces  tend.  This  educational  bliss  is  the 
perfect  unification  of  teacher  and  pupil  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  school,  the  complete  identification 
of  the  pupil  and  the  subject  studied,  and  the  total 
development  of  a  perfect  life. 

The  Idea  a  Process. — The  idea  is  essentially  a 
process  because  it  consists  in  that  round  of  move- 
ment known  as  source,  separation  and  return. 
This  triadal  process  has  its  root  in  thought  or 
intelligence.  This  intelligible  foundation  of  the 
world  has  been  called  ''idea''  by  Plato  and  HegeL 


288  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  internal  rational  essence  of  the  world  and  the 
school,  we  call  ''thought."  It  is  that  which  gives 
life  and  vitality  to  all  things,  physical,  educational 
and  institutional.  The  final  cause  of  the  world  and 
the  school  is  not  a  mechanism,  but  a  spiritual 
principle.  Every  school  process,  every  educational 
process  has  an  internal  finality  which  coordinates 
and  organizes  the  various  parts  into* a  systematic 
whole.  In  studying  the  educational  process  the 
subjective  school  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
objective  school,  because  the  latter  is  finite  and 
imperfect  and  the  former  is  spiritual  and  perfect. 
It  is  the  concept  of  the  school  process  that  makes 
it  spiritual,  and  it  is  spiritual  in  order  that  it  may 
realize  its  concept. 

Idea  in  Education. — The  fundamental  triadic  proc- 
ess in  education  is  source,  separation  and  return. 
Source  is  the  ideal,  constructive  energy  originating 

the  school  and  its  processes.  Separa- 
Triadic  tion    is    the    objectified    idea    developing 

the  course  of  study  and  formulating  a 
body  of  doctrines  to  be  taught  in  the  school.  To 
return  from  this  separation  back  to  the  original 
source  is  the  final  aim  in  education  and  is  attained 
in  and  through  the  teaching  process.  It  is  through 
the  activity  of  the  human  soul  that  the  cycle  of 
the  world  is  made  to  harmonize  with  the  cycle  of 
thought.  It  is  the  purpose  of  education  to  objectify 
the  self  into  the  world  of  thought  and  to  bring  that 
enriched  self  back  through  a  subject-object  process 
called  knowledge. 


THE  LOGICAL  PROCESS:    IDEA  289 

The  universal  process  in  education  sets  forth  the 
doctrine  that  the  objective  processes  in  the  outer 
world  harmonize  and  correspond  to  processes  in 
the  mental  world.  The  cycles  of  the  universe  have 
a  kindred  nature  to  the  cycles  of  mental  life.  In 
pure  contemplation  the  soul  derives  nothing  from 
itself,  but  acts  as  a  mirror  in  reflecting  the  thought 
of  the  world  into  its  inner  life.  In  scientific  discov- 
ery, in  poetic  and  artistic  productions  the  soul  not 
only  has  thought,  but  there  is  such  an  inner  fertility 
of  mind  that  it  creates  thoughts,  types  and  forms. 
Creation  is  a  higher  form  of  activity  than  contem- 
plation. 

"To  enjoy  a  truth  is  evidently  not  so  sweet  as  to  enjoy  the 
conq"*»«t  of  truth;  to  contemplate  beautiful  works  of  art  cannot 
equal  xue  pleasure  of  creating  them;  the  pleasure  of  a  virtue  prac- 
ticed is  nothing  compared  to  the  pleasure  caused  by  a  triumph 
over  actual  temptation;  and,  in  general,  productive  activity  is 
superior  to  mere  contemplation." 

Paul  Janet. 

The  mind  before  creating  the  school  creates  the 
type  school.  This  ideal  type  contains  in  itself  all 
the  multiplied  forces  and  factors  making  up  the 
actual  school.  The  type  school  is  the  The  Type 
essence  and  the  external  objective  fixed  ^*'^*^^ 

school  is  the  existence.  In  every  school  there  is 
a  creative  intelligence  and  a  contemplative  intelli- 
gence. While  the  former  originates  the  school  the 
latter  recognizes  the  spiritual  principle  in  the  school 
and  the  knowledge  contained  in  subject-matter. 
The   teacher,   the    poet,    the    artist    have    creative 

19 


290  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

activity,  while  the  student,  the  reader,  the  observer 
have  contemplative  activity.  In  the  process  of 
education  the  inner  life  of  the  soul  is  never  con- 
sidered a  finished  product,  but  a  possibility  forever 
changing  into  an  actuality.  Education  is  based 
upon  the  theory  that — 

"What  thought  discusses  in  phenomena  is  a  manifestation  of 
the  divine  and  universal  reason." 

Finality  in  Education. — The  final  cause  of  all 
educational  processes  is  soul  activity.  The  internal 
rational  essence  of  the  school,  of  teaching  and  of 
life  is  a  thought  activity.  Every  process  in  educa- 
tion and  every  process  in  nature  may  each  be  equally 
called  ideas  externalized.  The  final  cause  of  the 
school  is  the  originating  cause  which  is  in  its  ulti- 
mate analysis  a  spiritual  essence.  It  is  a  law  of 
mind  that  it  constantly  endeavors  to  attain  the 
The  Eternal  ultimate  causc  or  reason  of  things.  The 
^'^^^^  supreme  reason  of  the  world,  which  is  one 
with  the  internal  meaning  of  the  school,  is  the 
Absolute  Idea.  Both  the  school  and  the  world  are 
embraced  in  the  eternal  reason.  The  essential  char- 
acteristic of  this  supreme  principle  is  the  fact  that 
it  reveals  itself  in  some  external  form.  The  fun- 
damental principle  of  reason  which  explains  every 
process  in  education  is  a  principle  of  activity  and 
a  principle  of  knowledge.  The  Absolute  Mind  is  the 
supreme  expression,  ground  and  end  of  all  existence. 

The  Notion  in  Education. — The  notion  is  that 
underlying  force  pervading  all  things  and  is  in  its 


THE  LOGICAL  PROCESS:    IDEA  291 

ultimate  essence  a  personality.  It  is  a  self-deter- 
mining energy  which  has  the  power  of  transmuting 
the  potential  into  the  actual,  the  real  into  the  ideal. 
It  is  the  immanent  in  all  things  and  unifies  and 
organizes  the  chaotic  educational  world  into  ra- 
tional order.  The  notion  in  its  essential  nature  is 
creative  and  productive,  and  is  the  fundamental 
energy  in  all  educational  processes.  It  is  a  thought 
force  which  constantly  strives  to  realize  itself  in 
the  objective.  A  school  is  what  it  is  by  virtue  of 
the  notion  immanent  in  its  process.     A 

.       .  Function 

process  m  teachmg  is  what  it  is  through  ofthe 

..  CI  •  ,,.,..  Notion 

the  activity  of  the  notion  embodied  in  it. 
The   fundamental   process   in   education   is   a   self- 
realizing  act  in  which  the  subject  is  active  in  and 
through  the  object.    J.  G.  Hibben  says: 

"It  is  of  the  very  nature  of  the  subjective  as  a  thought  activity 
that  it  should  strive  to  reahze  itself  in  the  objective. " 

The  notion  here  discussed  is  not  a  psychological 
term  but  in  its  onward  movement  is  a  develop- 
mental process.  In  plant  life  it  is  the  development 
of  the  oak  tree  from  the  acorn.  In  animal  life 
it  is  a  change  from  germinal  matter  to  the 
robin.  In  man  the  evolution  of  the  notion  is  a 
transition  from  potence  to  actualized  life 
called  self-realization  or  self-development. 
There  is  innate  in  the  pupil  a  pent-up  energy 
struggling  to  realize  itself  through  work,  develop- 
ment, education. 


292  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

"The  idea  of  development,  the  continuous  unfolding  of  all  that 
is  potential  in  the  notion,  demands  a  single  unifying  principle 
in  the  midst  of  the  super -abounding  diversity  of  content,  mani- 
festing itself  in  a  progressive  process  in  which  each  succeeding 
stage  is  more  completely  realized  than  the  one  before." 

This  quotation  from  Hibben  strikes  at  the  very 
heart  of  the  doctrine  of  education  set  forth  in  this 
book  and  is  a  solid  foundation  for  building  any 
theory  of  pedagogy.  This  text  aims  at  foundation 
principles  in  education,  the  underlying  ground  of 
the  school,  the  universal  law  in  teaching,  the  funda- 
mental life  process,  and  that  organizing  and  co- 
ordinating world  movement,  the  eternal  reason, 
which  gives  life  and  existence  to  all  thought  and 
to  all  things. 


XX. 

THE  COSMIC  PROCESS:    NATURE 

Nature  is  a  form  of  the  eternal  reason  and  an 
all-inclusive  system  of  relations.  The  spiritual 
principle  in  nature  is  the  source  of  these  relations 
which  constitute  human  experience  and  which  is 
the  unifying  principle  of  the  world.  The  activity 
of  thought  in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  these  relations 
harmonizes  with  the  activity  of  divine  mind  in 
establishing  them.  The  thinking  human  intelli- 
gence works  in  unison  with  the  thinking,  creative 
intelligence.  That  in  nature  which  is  an  object  of 
thought  to  me  is  determined  by  the  relations  which 
my  thought  establishes.  In  the  Kantian  sense  the 
understanding  makes  nature. 

Schelling  calls  nature  an  undeveloped,  slumber- 
ing, unconscious,  benumbed  intelligence.  He  teaches 
that  every  product  in  nature  is  the  result  of  a  posi- 
tive, centrifugal,  accelerating,  universalizing  force 
and  a  negative,  limiting,  retarding,  individualizing 
one.  The  creative  activity  of  nature  is  unbounded 
and  is  seen  in  the  struggle  for  existence  in  all  organic 
matter.  This  dualism  in  nature  is  a  cosmic  principle 
which  affects  not  only  the  material  universe  but  is 
the  projectile  force  establishing  social  and  educa- 
tional institutions.  This  struggle  between  the 
universal    and   the   individual    creates   the   school, 


294  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

develops  the  fundamental  law  in  teaching,  explains 
the  thinking  process  and  makes  the  nature  and 
meaning  of  life  sun-clear. 

Nature  and  Mind.-^We  are  beginning  to  under- 
stand that  nature  and  mind  are  not  two  con- 
tradictory elements  in  the  world,  but  that  they 
form  one  organic  whole.  Nature  implies  mind  and 
mind  finds  itself  in  a  living  relation  to  nature.  Nature 
is  permeated  by  mind,  and  hence  intelligence  can 
grasp  the  meaning  of  nature.  When  mind  finds 
itself  in  nature  and  when  nature  yields  up  its  essence 
to  mind,  then  the  individual  has  realized  aesthetic 
freedom.  Nature  does  not  exist  in  opposition  to 
mind  but  they  belong  to  one  organic  system  of 
Esthetic  knowledge.  The  whole  universe,  mind  and 
Freedom  naturc  iucludcd,  is  a  process  consisting  of 
law,  order  and  rationality.  The  beauties,  complex- 
ities and  infinity  of  nature  are  manifestations  of  the 
eternal  reason.  The  organic  life  of  reason  is  the 
reality  of  both  mind  and  nature  and  the  inner  con- 
necting force  in  all  educational  processes.  The 
eosmic  process  is  a  manifestation  of  reason  and 
reflects  itself  in  the  consciousness  of  mankind.  The 
essence  of  reason  is  to  make  itself  known  in  some 
objectified  form  of  nature  or  mind.  It  is  the  func- 
tion of  mind  to  bridge  the  chasm  between  itself  and 
nature  and  to  bring  back  to  itself  what  was  once 
estranged.  The  eternal  reason  is  the  heart  of  nature, 
the  vital  energy  in  organic  life,  the  spiritual  principle 
in  man.  This  fundamental  energy  is  both  imma- 
nent and  transcendent,  both  potential  and  actual. 


THE  COSMIC  PROCESS:    NATURE         295 

The  mind  does  not  exist  in  and  through  itself, 
but  in  and  through  nature  which  is  other  than 
itself.  Nature  is  not  isolated  and  cut  off  from  mind 
but  has  its  reality  only  in  relation  to  a  thinking 
subject.  The  unity  of  nature  and  mind  is  realized 
in  their  difference  and  their  difference  presupposes 
their  organic  unity.  Nature  is  a  system  of  thought 
relations  and  results  from  the  activity  of  mind. 
Thinkers  are  gradually  accepting  the  doctrine  that 
out  of  the  absolute  are  objectified  all  the  processes 
of  nature  and  man.  It  is  by  means  of  a  thinking 
human  soul  that  the  cycle  of  the  world  is  completed 
and  that  man  becomes  identified  with  the  eternal 
process  by  '^ Thinking  God's  thoughts  after  him.'' 

Nature  Study. — The  purpose  of  nature  study 
is  to  infuse  new  life  and  meaning  into  the  course 
of  study.  It  is  a  means  rather  than  an  end.  To 
place  the  multiplied  forms  of  nature  in  the  hands 
of  pupils  trains  them  in  observation,  perception, 
judgment,  discrimination,  and  gives  them  an  im- 
petus and  an  interest  in  school  work.  It  quickens 
mental  life  by  using  fresh  knowledge  and  opens  the 
child's  mind  to  the  beauties  and  complexities  of 
nature.  It  is  also  a  powerful  factor  in  developing 
the  aesthetic  nature  of  the  child.  The  beauty  of  form 
and  color,  the  adaptation  and  unity  in  nature  fill  the 
child's  life  with  all  that  is  pure,  noble  and  lovely. 
This  love  of  the  beautiful  may  be  further  increased 
by  a  study  of  nature-art  and  nature-poetry. 

The  study  of  nature  affords  the  child  an  oppor- 
tunity for  truth-seeing  and  truth-telUng.     It  culti- 


296  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

vates  the  child's  ethical  nature  by  requiring  him  to 
perform  many  acts  of  positive  good  deeds.  It 
gives  a  basis  of  right  living  and  trains  the  child  to 
refrain  from  killing  birds,  destroying  fruits  and 
teaches  him  to  accomplish  something  worth  while. 
The  chief  purpose  in  nature  study  is  to  afford  the 
school  a  basis  for  expressive  work.  Expression 
presupposes  organized  thought  activity.  The  more 
interesting  the  content  of  expression,  the  more 
easily  is  the  expression  made. 

Language. — Nature  study  is  almost  indispensable 
in  teaching  composition  and  language.  It  usually 
appeals  so  vividly  to  the  child  that  he  has  a  burn- 
ing desire  for  utterance.  It  puts  the  child  in  the 
attitude  of  writing  from  inside  out,  rather  than  from 
outside  in.  Nature  gives  the  child  such  an  inspira- 
tion that  he  cannot  refrain  from  composing.  The 
attributes,  parts  and  relations  of  nature  constitute 
a  logical  arrangement  leading  to  composition.  The 
composition  is  literally  in  nature  itself.  The  child 
thinks  the  thoughts  and  ideas  in  nature,  and  gives 
expression  to  them  in  a  spontaneous  manner. 
The  truth,  law  and  order  inherent  in  nature  lead 
to  a  rational  expression,  in  language  and  composi- 
tion. The  composing  process  is  an  objectification 
of  an  inner  idea  in  nature  into  an  outer  form 
of  language. 

Reading, — The  first  reading  lessons  should  be  the 
child's  own  composition  based  on  nature  study. 
These  lessons  should  gradually  develop  into  story, 
narration,    and   description.      Emphasis   should    be 


THE  COSMIC  PROCESS:    NATURE         297 

placed  on  processes,  functions  and  relations  of 
living  activities.  Nature  lessons  should  gradually  be 
expanded  into  informational  and  inspirational  exer- 
cises. The  child  should  read  those  lessons  of  nature 
which  are  most  interesting  and  most  true  to  life. 

Drawing. — Work  in  drawing  should  be  correlated 
with  composition  and  reading.  The  forms  of  nature 
afford  a  splendid  basis  for  work  in  drawing.  The 
form,  size  and  position  of  all  objects  studied  in 
nature  should  be  expressed  by  drawing.  The 
natural  object  inspires  the  child  to  express  his 
ideas  not  only  in  language,  but  also  by  some  form 
,of  sketching.  Drawing  is  also  taught  from  inside 
out  and  is  made  a  most  interesting  school  exercise. 
Plants  and  animals  appeal  most  strikingly  to  the 
child,  in  drawing  exercises.  The  school-garden, 
training  the  child  in  pruning,  budding  and  grafting 
trees,  plowing,  hoeing  and  fertilizing  land,  planting, 
cultivating  and  reaping  crops,  is  a  most  valuable 
equipment  for  any  school  and  gives  much  material 
for  drawing,  sketching,  painting  and  color  work. 

Extensive  and  Intensive. — The  first  form  of 
nature  study  should  extend  over  the  entire  realm 
of  nature.  After  the  child  knows  something  of 
everything,  he  is  ready  to  know  everything  of 
something.  Bird  life  and  language  are  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  and  soul  inspiring  phases  of  nature 
study.  A  study  of  the  songs  of  birds  may  be  made 
interesting,  instructive  and  entertaining.  To  make 
an  intense  study  of  bird  life  or  any  other  phase  of 
nature  gives  the  child  the  scientific  impulse  and 


298  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

initiates  him  into  the  scientific  spirit.  Nature 
study  brings  pupils  in  touch  with  the  world  of 
science,  cultivates  perceptive  thinking  and  formu- 
lates a  body  of  knowledge  most  valuable  in  edu- 
cation. 

The  Unity  of  Science. — After  students  have 
been  trained  in  elementary  and  advanced  science 
they  should  be  finally  taught  the  universal  element 
in  knowledge,  the  principles  and  laws  beneath  the 
phenomenal  world,  the  ultimate  unity  and  reality 
of  all  science  and  knowledge.  It  is  impossible  to 
study  and  teach  any  department  of  knowledge 
correctly  without  taking  into  consideration  its 
organic  relation  to  all  other  knowledge.  There  is 
a  reciprocal  relationship  existing  between  all  depart- 
Knowiedge  Hients  of  scieucc  and  a  connecting  link 
Related  chaining  them  into  one  organic  whole. 
Correlation  is  not  a  matter  of  juxtaposition  of 
subjects  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view,  but  a 
study  of  the  deeper  relations  existing  in  the  very 
nature  of  science.  According  to  Dr.  Caird,  '^The 
presupposition  which  is  the  secret  stimulus  of 
intelligence  and  of  the  desire  for  knowledge,  is  the 
possibility  of  finding  reason,  rational  coherence, 
connexion,  system  in  all  things;  the  conviction  that 
in  the  whole  realm  of  being,  in  nature  and  in  man, 
in  matter  and  spirit,  from  the  least  and  lowest 
material  object  up  to  the  highest  intelligence,  there 
can  be  no  dualism,  no  contradiction,  no  contingency, 
no  gap  or  gulf  which  it  is  impossible  for  thought  to 
bridge;    and  this  is  virtually  the  notion  that  there 


THE  COSMIC  PROCESS:    NATURE         299 

is  really  only  one  science,  of  which  the  various  spe- 
cial sciences  are  but  arbitrary  divisions  or  degrees. '^ 

Teachers  and  students  should  not  be  satisfied  to 
master  an  isolated  science,  but  should  seek  an 
insight  into  those  causal  relations  which  bind  the 
world  together.  In  the  onward  sweep  of  thought, 
the  chasm  between  mind  and  matter,  nature,  and 
spirit  should  forever  be  closed.  We  must  continue 
to  search  after  the  unity  of  things  until  unity  in 
nature,  mind  and  God  are  shown  to  Diversity 
belong  to  one  organic  system  of  knowledge.  The 
mind,  a  unity  and  diversity,  seeks  unity  in  divers- 
ity in  the  world.  This  unity  is  not  one  of  coexist- 
ence and  sequence  merely,  but  one  implying  a 
process  or  development.  There  is  a  law  or  reason 
running  through  the  world  unifying  the  mechanical 
and  chemical,  the  organic  and  inorganic  and  matter 
and  spirit.  In  the  gradual  development  of  the  world 
one  order  of  nature  implies  and  prophesies  a  higher 
stage  of  existence.  The  mind  in  tracing  out  this 
unitary  principle  finally  arrives  at  its  own  self-con- 
sciousness in  which  it  is  able  to  think  the  world  in 
existence  and  to  think  it  in  the  process  of  becoming 
an  objective  reality. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  world,  education, 
the  school,  teaching  and  life  itself  are  processes. 
These  are  not  distinct  processes,  but  phases  of 
a  fundamental  world  movement.  Harmonizing 
with  this  doctrine,  the  mind  is  constantly  changing 
and  developing  from  existence  to  sensation,  from 
sensation  to  consciousness  and  from  consciousness 


300  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Rational  to  the  highest  stage  of  thought.  There 
Coherence  jg  ^^  Ye&p  HOT  gulf  ill  the  physical  or  in- 
stitutional world  and  no  gap  nor  chasm  in  mind 
evolution.  The  whole  world  is  made  up  of  system, 
relation,  connection  and  rational  coherence. 

It  is  usually  considered  that  science  treating  of 
the  laws  and  phenomena  of  nature  is  antagonistic 
to  philosophy  treating  of  mind  and  the  fundamental 
categories  of  thought.  There  is  a  class  of  thinkers 
who  scoff  at  the  philosopher  who  are  nevertheless 
philosophers  in  spite  of  themselves.  They  pro- 
claim from  the  house-top,  facts,  matter,  material 
forces,  and  that  mind  itself  is  a  mere  function  of 
matter.  They  preach  the  doctrine  of  psycho- 
physical   parallelism    and    maintain   that 

Philosophers         ^         '       ■,      r  i  .      i 

physical  forces  are  somehow  converted 
into  psychic  activities.  In  the  first  place  facts 
and  experience  are  impossible  without  the  laws  of 
thought.    It  has  been  well  said: 

"You  cannot  reach  mind  as  an  ultimate  product  of  matter 
and  force;    for  in  doing  so  you  have  already  begun  with  mind." 

A  fact  is  a  thing  made  by  the  mind  and  has  no 
existence  except  in  relation  to  the  mind.  If  mind 
is  subtracted  from  a  fact,  if  thought  is  extracted 
from  an  object,  there  is  only  a  questionable  fact 
or  object  remaining.  The  fact  student,  the  experi- 
mentalist, does  not  wholly  deal  with  hard  material 
facts  but  uses  law,  force,  matter,  cause,  effect, 
likeness  and  difference,  substance  and  attribute, 
purpose  and  means,  and  becomes  a  philosopher  in 
spite  of  himself. 


XXI. 

THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND 

The  logical  process  traces  the  absolute  intelli- 
gence in  its  movement  to  self-consciousness,  sepa- 
rating itself  from  itself  and  returning  to  itself  in 
order  to  know  and  understand  itself.  The  cosmic 
process  reveals  the  mind  principle  in  nature  and 
unfolds  the  process  by  which  nature  loses  its  identity 
and  becomes  spirit.  The  spiritual  process  explains 
how  this  estrangement  is  removed,  how  spirit 
identifies  itself  with  itself  and  how  it  attains  its 
formal  essence,  freedom.  The  mind  buried  in  nature 
gradually  unfolds  itself  into  consciousness,  self- 
consciousness  and  reason.  This  awakening  from 
its  bondage,  by  which  it  identifies  itself 
with  the  object  immediately,  by  which 
it  knows  itself  in  determining  the  object  and  by 
which  it  knows  the  object  as  its  own  process  is  an 
act  of  spiritual  creativity.  The  mind  in  its  final 
evolution  becomes  rational  and  universal  by  com- 
pleting the  cycle  and  recognizing  in  its  otherness  a 
spiritual  principle  akin  to  itself.  The  mind^s  impulse 
to  think  and  to  act,  splits  itself  into  a  scission  of 
the  real  and  the  ideal.  The  primal  activity  of  spirit 
is  to  assert  itself  in  contradistinction  to  the  not- 
self,  to  separate  itself  from  itself,  and  to  return 
from  this  estrangement  to  itself,  enriched  and 
enlarged. 

301 


302  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Self-activity  which  is  self-conscious  activity  and 
which  is  the  fundamental  principle  in  every  educa- 
tional process  is  the  basis  of  all  knowledge  and 
Self-  freedom.     Prof.  Ormond  says  the  soul  is 

Activity  ^^^  p^j,g  actuality,  but  rather  a  spiritual 
energy  constantly  passing  from  potence  to  actuality. 
According  to  this  statement  all  education  is  a  process 
in  the  unfolding  of  self-conscious  activity.  The 
self-activity  of  spirit  is  the  basis  of  all  knowledge 
and  the  origin  and  explanation  of  every  process 
in  education.  The  fundamental  process  in  educa- 
tion, in  the  school,  in  teaching,  in  thinking,  in  life, 
is  ground  in  a  universal  process,  having  as  its  ele- 
ments a  logical,  a  cosmic  and  a  spiritual  factor. 
The  final  purpose  and  aim  in  every  process  in  edu- 
cation is  freedom;  individual  freedom,  race  free- 
dom, spiritual  freedom. 

Spiritual  Freedom. — This  doctrine  of  educa- 
tion has  attempted  to  prove  that  the  school  is  a 
spiritual  organism,  that  teaching  is  a  spiritual 
process  and  that  the  purpose  of  thought  and  life 
is  to  unfold  spirit  in  and  through  the  world  process. 
The  final  problem  in  education — spiritual  freedom 
— will  now  be  solved  by  making  a  close  study  of 
Hegers  Philosophy  of  History.  According  to  this 
thinker  universal  history  is  the  progress  in  the 
consciousness  of  freedom.  It  shows  successively 
that  ''one  is  free,"  that  ''some  are  free"  and  "man 
as  man  is  free"  and  finally  that  "it  is  the  freedom 
of  spirit  which  constitutes  its  essence."  The 
Orientals  know  that  one  is  free,  but  this  freedom 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         303 

is  mere  caprice.  The  consciousness  of  Evolution  of 
freedom  first  arose  among  the  Greeks,  Freedom 
but  their  freedom  was  conditioned  by  the  natural. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  knew  that  some  are  free, 
but  did  not  reahze  that  man  as  such  is  free.  The 
Germans  influenced  by  Christianity  attained  the 
consciousness  that  man,  as  such,  is  free.  History 
traces  the  process  by  which  the  consciousness  of 
freedom  is  realized. 

Essentials  in  Spiritual  Freedom. — Anaxagoras 
was  the  first  thinker  to  set  forth  the  doctrine 
that  nous  governs  the  world.  He  did  not  have  the 
ability  and  insight  to  apply  this  principle  to  the 
concrete  world,  but  left  it  to  Socrates,  Plato  and 
Aristotle  to  explain  the  immanence  of  the  universal 
in  the  individual.  Hegel  uses  the  world  spirit  as 
the  guiding  force  in  the  development  and 
explanation  of  the  historic  process.  To  Governs 
him  each  nation  represents  a  particular 
element  in  the  progress  of  the  universal  spirit. 
When  a  nation  accomplishes  the  highest  mission 
possible,  it  yields  up  the  universal  principle  to 
another  one  higher  in  the  scale  of  freedom.  Each 
nation  represents  a  phase  or  moment  in  the  progress 
of  the  consciousness  of  freedom. 

The  material  used  in  universal  history  to  explain 
the  progress  of  freedom,  is  law,  principle,  purpose, 
personality,  subjectivity  and  the  cunning 

-.  rrti  •  t  I  •    •  I  •  "^^^  State 

of  reason.     These  inner,  human  activities 

are  externalized   in   human   deeds,  human   events, 

human   constitutions,   and   states.      *^The   state   is 


304  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

the  divine  idea  as  it  exists  on  earth."  In  Hegelian 
terminology,  society  and  the  state  are  the  very 
conditions  in  which  freedom  is  realized.  —  It  is 
only  by  a  constitution  that  the  abstraction,  the  state 
attains  life  and  reality.  —  The  state  is  the  idea  of 
spirit  in  the  external  manifestation  of  human  will 
and  its  freedom.  —  Universal  history  exhibits  the 
gradation  in  the  development  of  that  principle  whose 
substantial  purport  is  the  consciousness  of  freedom. 
The  aims,  the  principles  and  laws,  found  in  the 
the  inner  essence  of  history,  are  subjective  and  have 
no  objective  existence  in  the  external  world  until 
the  activity  of  man  transforms  these  subjective 
relations  into  objective  deeds.  The  so-called  his- 
torical personages  are  means  to  freedom 
Historical  becausc  they  represent  the  advanced 
margin  of  human  life  and  civilization.  A 
world  historical  individual  is  devoted  to  a  single 
purpose  in  life.  In  the  deeds  of  such  men  universal 
reason  realizes  itself. 

In  the  progress  of  nations,  spirit  is  at  war  with  it- 
self, it  separates  itself  from  itself,  overcomes  itself 
and  works  out  its  freedom  through  its  own  creative 
energy.  Spirit  begins  with  a  germ  of  potentiality, 
an  undeveloped  form  and  progresses  toward  actual- 
ity. The  evolution  of  the  individual  par- 
Tndividuai  allels  the  evolution  of  the  race.  The  child 
rIV^^  with  stored-up  energy  is  developed  into 
an  actual,  ideal  spiritual  being,  in  the 
same  manner  that  nations  are  gradually  unfolded 
into  higher  forms  of  life  and  civilization.     The  edu- 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         305 

cative  process  of  the  individual  pupil  harmonizes 
with  the  race  process  in  history.  According  to  this 
theory  of  culture  epochs  the  child  in  its  develop- 
ment parallels  the  race  in  its  development  toward 
freedom.  The  Orientals  are  the  child  race  of  un- 
refiected  consciousness  and  have  only  objective 
spiritual  existence.  They  represent  the  dawn  of 
human  consciousness  which  is  gradually  unfolded 
by  passing  through  the  various  stages  of  human 
progress  and  racial  evolution. 

China. — History  begins  with  China,  at  the  same 
time  the  oldest  and  the  newest  nation  in  the  world. 
It  is  the  oldest,  because  early  in  time  China  at- 
tained the  present  state  of  advancement.  It  is 
also  the  newest  nation  because  subjectivity  and 
inner  life  now  begins  to  dawn  upon  the  nation. 
As  yet  there  is  no  distinction  between  the  natural 
and  the  spiritual,  the  individual  and  substantial. 
The  substantial,  the  Emperor,  rules  not  no 

from  a  moral  disposition,  but  as  a  despot.  Dualism 
There  is  no  reflection  on  the  part  of  the  subject, 
nor  no  thought  splitting  into  the  real  and  ideal. 
In  this  grade  of  civilization,  the  person  ruled  does 
not  recognize  in  the  ruler  a  being  in  harmony  with 
himself,  ''one  with  its  own  essential  being."  The 
universal  will,  the  Emperor,  rules,  and  the  individual 
subject  obeys.  He  does  not  think,  he  does  not 
reflect,  he  does  not  question  the  motive  of  the  ruler, 
but  simply  obeys.  If  he  does  not  obey,  if  he  sepa- 
rates himself  from  the  ruler,  he  receives  objective 
punishment    (bastinadoed)    rather   than   subjective 

20 


306  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

discipline.  The  element  of  subjectivity  on  the  part 
of  the  one  ruled  is  wanting.  The  law  of  the  Em- 
peror is  the  law  of  the  subject.  All  subjective 
freedom,  all  moral  ideas,  all  personality,  all  individ- 
uality, and  all  inner  life  in  general  are  wanting  in 
China's  civilization.  The  Chinese  do  not  distinguish 
between  accident  and  intention.  If  one  kills  another 
accidentally,  he  is  punished  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  he  killed  him  intentionally. 

As  to  religion,  the  Chinese  worship  pure  Nothing 
as  God.  They  have  contempt  for  individuality, 
for  personal  existence  and  cherish  the  meanest 
opinion  of  themselves.  Suicide  is  a  daily  occurrence, 
and  shows  the  little  respect  they  have  for  them- 
selves and  life. 

The  Chinese  have  no  science  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word.  Their  science  is  empirical  and  utilitarian. 
The  Chinese  philosophy  is  Pythagorean  and  based 
upon  the  fundamental  principle  of  reason — Tao. 
They  do  not  excel  in  mathematics,  physics  nor 
astronomy.  Medicine  is  in  its  empirical  state. 
The  ideal  and  truly  beautiful  is  not  found  in  China's 
art.  In  short,  whatever  may  be  called  spiritual, 
'*  unconstrained  morality,  in  practice  and  theory, 
heart,  inward  religion,  science  and  art  properly  so- 
called,'' — all  these  are  unknown  in  Chinese  civil- 
ization. 

India. — In  China  there  is  no  contrast  between 
objective  existence  and  subjective  freedom.  In 
India  there  is  a  marked  distinction  between  the 
spiritual  and  the  sensual,  between  the  real  and  the 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         307 

ideal.  China  is  the  land  of  the  prosaic  Evolution 
understanding,  India  is  the  land  of  phan-  ^^  ^^^^ 
tasy,  imagination  and  sensibility.  In  China  the  Em- 
peror rules,  and  the  subject  obeys  without  thought. 
In  India  '^  external  conditions  should  become  in- 
ternal ones."  It  is  represented  as  the  land  of 
dream  life;  that  state  in  which  the  individual  ceases 
to  be  self,  in  contradistinction  to  the  objective 
world.  According  to  the  Indian  doctrine  there  is 
a  god  in  everything — a  universal  pantheism  of 
imagination  rather  than  of  thought.  There  is  a 
god  in  the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  moon,  stars,  flowers, 
beasts,  parrot,  cow,  etc.  '^The  divine  is  not  in- 
dividualized to  a  subject,  to  concrete  spirit,  but 
degraded  to  senselessness  .  .  .  things  are  as 
much  stripped  of  rationality,  of  finite  consistent 
stability,  of  cause  and  effect,  as  man  is  of  the  stead- 
fastness of  free  individuality,  of  personality  and 
freedom." 

In  China  all  are  equal  before  the  Emperor.  In 
India  this  unity  differentiates  into  casts.  An  organic 
life  requires  in  the  first  place  one  soul,  and  in  the 
second  place,  a  divergence  into  difference. 

Brahminism. — The  Brahmins  are  the  highest 
class  by  which  the  divine  is  presented  and  brought 
to  bear  on  the  community.  To  attain  Brahm  is 
the  highest  conception  of  the  Indian.  ''When  I 
fall    back    within    myself,    and    close    all 

1  1  ir  Brahm 

external    senses    and    say   om  to   myself, 

that  is  Brahm."     To  secure  unity  with  God,  is  to 

shut  out  all  thought  of  externality.    The  spirituality 


308  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  the  Brahmins  is  not  pure  freedom,  because  it  has 
no  inward  reflection  in  contrast  with  nature.  Brahm 
is  pure  unity  of  thought,  the  substantial  unity  of  all. 
The  Hindoo  cannot  think  a  thing  because  he  has 
not  the  ability  to  reflect  by  rational  attributes. 
The  activity  of  the  Indian  is  due  to  external  usage, 
rather  than  to  personality  and  subjectivity.  They 
are  said  to  be  tender,  mild  and  beautiful,  but 
lacking  rectitude,  morality  and  spiritual  freedom. 
As  freedom  is  wanting,  there  can  be  no  state,  for: 

"A  state  is  a  realization  of  spirit,  such  that  in  it,  the  self-con- 
scious being  of  spirit,  the  freedom  of  the  will  is  realized  as  law." 

There  is,  therefore,  no  morality,  no  true  religion 
and  nothing  that  may  be  called  historical  truth. 
That  which  the  Indian  gains  through  imagination 
may  be  the  opposite  truth  gained  by  intellectual 
reflection. 

Buddhism. — The  elevation  of  spirit  to  subjec- 
tivity takes  place  negatively  through  the  doctrine 
of  nothingness  and  affirmatively  by  a  union  of 
spirit  in  human  form. 

According  to  the  dogma  of  Buddhism  nothing- 
ness is  the  principle  of  all  things.  All  things  come 
from  nothingness  and  all  things  pass  into  nothing- 
ness.     The    various    forms    of    the    phe- 

Nothingness  ,  ,  ,  t  /-       ,  • 

nomenal  world  are  mere  modmcations 
of  a  process.  Beyond  finite  existence,  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  human  mind  is  a  region  of  Abstract 
Nothingness  called  the  ''Supreme  Being. ^'  ''This 
real  principle  of  the  universe  is,  it  is  said,  in  eternal 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         309 

repose,  and  in  itself  unchangeable.  Its  essence 
consists  in  the  absence  of  activity  and  volition. 
For  Nothingness  is  abstract  unity  with  itself.  To 
obtain  happiness,  therefore,  man  must  seek  to 
assimilate  himself  to  this  principle  by  continued 
victories  over  himself;  and  for  the  sake  of  this,  do 
nothing,  wish  nothing,  desire  nothing."  To  obtain 
perfection  it  is  necessary  to  free  one's  self  from  all 
activity  and  to  attain  a  state  of  pure  passivity. 
To  attain  this  condition  is  to  harmonize  one's  self 
with  Foe. 

Buddhism  also  sets  forth  the  theory  that  the 
spirit,  immersed  in  the  objective  attains  unity  with 
the  Absolute  in  an  affirmative  manner.  Spirit  is 
not  understood  in  the  pure  subjectivity  of  thought, 
but  as  an  immediate  unreflected  form  of  humanity. 
They  worship  the  spirit  of  man,  the  spirit  of  a 
departed  teacher  or  the  living  spirit  of  the  grand 
Lama.  In  the  Lamaistic  worship  it  is  the  universal 
spirit  in  man  that  is  revered  and  not  the  individual, 
objective,  concrete  being. 

Persia. — The  dualism  of  spirit  and  nature  now 
develops  into  light  and  darkness.  The  principle 
of  conscious  development  of  activity,  of  life  begins 
with  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster.  The  universal  is 
not  recognized  as  spirit  and  truth,  but  is  manifest 
as  light.  Ormuzd  or  light  has  within  it 
the   elements   of  the  good   and   true,    of  ^^  * 

knowledge  and  choice.  Ahriman  or  darkness  implies 
the  evil,  the  bad,  the  wicked.     Light  involves  not 


310  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

only   a   universal    physical   element,    but   also   the 
spiritual  purity,  the  Good. 

"Man  sustains  a  relation  to  light,  to  the  Abstract  Good,  as  to 
something  objective  which  is  acknowledged,  reverenced  and  evoked 
to  activity  by  his  will." 

It  is  the  nature  of  thought  to  be  dualistic.  This 
dualism  in  Persian  thought  has  not  yet  been  over- 
come, because  spirit  has  not  completely  realized 
itself.  There  is  still  recognized  a  struggle  between 
light  and  darkness,  natural  and  spiritual,  ideal  and 
real.  In  the  progress  of  the  consciousness  of  free- 
dom in  Chinese  thought,  in  Indian  thought  and  in 
Persian  thought  we  are  now  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  universal,  but  only  as  light.  Spirit  has  not 
yet  realized  itself,  has  not  yet  overcome  its  duality 
and  has  not  yet  attained  its  freedom.  This  same 
dualistic  principle  is  seen  in  Syrian  life  and  thought, 
not  as  light  and  darkness,  but  as  pain  and  pleasure. 
Pain  is  an  element  of  worship,  and  a  means  by 
which  man  realizes  his  subjectivity. 

Judea. — In  Jewish  thought  there  is  still  a  struggle 
between  the  spiritual  and  the  natural,  the  ideal 
and  the  real. 

"Spirit  descends  into  the  depths  of  its  own  being,  and  recognizes 
the  abstract  fundamental  principle  as  the  spiritual.  Nature, 
which  in  the  East  is  the  primary  and  fundamental  existence,  is  now 
depressed  to  the  condition  of  a  mere  creature;  and  Spirit  now 
occupies  the  first  place." 

The  Persian  light  has  developed  into  the  Jewish 
Jehovah.      The   spiritual,    which   in   early   thought 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         311 

was  dishonored,  now  frees  itself  of  the  sensuous, 
attains  its  true  dignity  and  position,  while  nature 
is  merely  the  robe  of  glory  and  has  its  existence  and 
origin  in  the  spiritual. 

The  individual  has  not  yet  attained  his  true 
freedom,  ''because  the  Absolute  itself  is  not  com- 
prehended as  concrete  spirit"  (Christ).  The  sub- 
jective feeling  has  been  developed,  the  concrete 
pure  heart,  repentance,  devotion,  but  the  ^p*"*" 

concrete  individual  does  not  recognize  himself  as 
the  polar  opposite  of  Christ,  because  the  spirit 
has  not  yet  been  made  flesh.  The  Jews  have  not 
attained  pure  freedom,  because  their  God  is  an 
exclusive  unity,  one  people  recognize  one  God. 
Individuality,  personality,  thought,  righteousness 
and  morality  now  begin  to  dawn  upon  the  human 
mind,  and  there  is  a  distinct  progress  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  freedom. 

Egypt. — In  Egyptian  civilization  there  is  a 
continuous  development  and  amplification  of  the 
dualistic  thought,  of  the  natural  and  spiritual,  the 
human  and  the  brute,  the  ideal  and  the  real.  Egypt 
is  the  land  of  the  mysterious,  ''the  riddle  of  the 
universe,"  the  home  of  the  sphinx,  an  ambiguous 
being,  half  brute  and  half  human.  The  sphinx  is 
the  symbol  of  spiritual  development,  existing  at 
this  time  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

"The  human  head  looking  out  from  the  brute  body,  exhibits 
spirit  as  it  begins  to  emerge  from  the  merely  natural — to  tear  itself 
loose  therefrom  and  already  to  look  more  freely  around  it;  without, 
however,  entirely  freeing  itself  from  the  fetters  nature  had  imposed." 


312  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

The  sphinx  is  the  problem  solver  of  the  world, 
and  illustrates  how  spirit,  bound  as  it  were,  with 
iron  bands  around  its  forehead,  is  struggling  to 
free  itself  from  the  natural.  The  Egyptian  spirit 
is  trying  to  untangle  itself  from  the  natural,  and  to 
solve  the  problem  of  freedom.  This  problem 
involves  two  elements;  spirit  sunk  in  nature,  and 
the  impulse  to  liberate  it. 

The  land  of  Egypt,  with  its  houses  half  below 
and  half  above  the  ground,  represents  that  phase 
of  civilization  in  which  freedom  has  not  yet  been 
realized.  It  gives  an  exhibition  of  spirit,  com- 
pressed, imbruted,  so  to  speak,  but  still  struggling 
to  unloosen  itself,  and  to  utter  itself.  The  Egyp- 
tians attained  a  reflective  intelligence  which  is  clearly 
seen  in  the  construction  of  their  pyramids  and 
works  of  art.  G.  W.  F.  Hegel  in  speaking  of  the 
progressive  development  of  Egyptian  spirit  writes: 

"It  is  that  African  imprisonment  of  ideas  combined  with  the 
infinite  impulse  of  the  spirit  to  realize  itself  objectively,  which  we 
find  here. " 

Egypt  attempts  to  solve  the  problem  of  the 
spiritual;  namely,  that  spirit  is  embedded  in  nature 
and  there  is  an  impulse  to  liberate  itself.  In  Egyp- 
tian thought  there  is  a  sharp  antithesis 
Egyptian  bctwccn  uaturc  and  spirit.  In  China 
there  is  absolute  unity  between  these 
two  principles.  By  the  Jews,  nature  is  considered 
a  manifestation  of  spirit.  In  Egypt  spirit  is  em- 
bruted,  but  is  struggling  to  free  itself. 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         313 

"The  spirit  never  rises  to  the  universal  and  higher,  for  it  seems 
to  be  bhnd  to  that;  nor  does  it  ever  withdraw  into  itself;  yet  it 
symbolizes  freely  and  boldly  with  particular  existence,  and  haa 
already  mastered  it." 

While  the  Egyptians  worshipped  animals,  they 
did  not  worship  the  material  animal,  but  the  in- 
comprehensible principle  slumbering  in  brute  crea- 
tion.  They  ''  worship  the  soul  as  still  shut  up  within, 
and  dulled  by  the  physical  organization."  The 
Egyptian  spirit  is  a  mighty  task-master,  and  at- 
tempts  to  solve  the  problem,  ''I  am  that  which  is, 
that  which  was,  and  that  which  will  be;  no  one  has 
lifted  my  veil."  It  also  proposes  for  solution  the 
final  problem  of  the  world — that  the  inner  essence 
of  nature  is  thought. 

Greece. — In  Greek  thought,  in  Greek  life,  in 
Greek  civilization,  there  is  still  progress  in  the 
consciousness  of  freedom.  The  Greek  freedom  is 
limited  to  the  natural  and  there  still  Freedom  in 
continues  the  struggle  between  the  natural  '^^^  Natural 
and  the  spiritual,  the  real  and  the  ideal,  the  mind 
and  the  world  objective  to  itself. 

"Man  regards  nature  only  as  excitement  to  his  faculties,  ani 
only  the  spiritual  which  he  has  evolved  from  it  can  have  any  in- 
fluence over  him." 

The  Greek  people  were  a  divided  people,  geo- 
graphically speaking.  This  threw  them  back  upon 
their  own  subjective  life  and  thought.  They  de- 
pended upon  nature  for  the  basis  of  their  reflection, 
and  formed  surmises  and  inquiries  concerning  the 
meaning  and  significance  of  nature.    It  is  a  dictum 


314  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

of  Greek  thought  that  wonder  and  presentiment 
are  the  fundamental  and  essential  categories  of 
human  thinking.  Pan  was  subjective  rather  than 
objective,  for  he  represented  the  soul  thrilled  by 
contact  with  nature.  The  Greeks  listened  to  the 
murmuring  and  rippling  fountains  and  interpreted 
them  not  objectively,  but  subjectively.  The  song 
of  the  Muse,  is  not  an  objectification  of  the  fountain, 
but  a  creative  and  spiritual  interpretation  of  its 
meaning.  The  noise  of  the  rippling  waters  in  the 
cave  of  Trophonius  was  heard  and  interpreted  by 
the  thinking,  comprehending  human  spirit. 

"It  must  also  be  observed,  that  these  excitements  of  the  spirit 
are  in  the  first  instance  external,  natural  impulses.  Succeeding 
them  are  internal  changes  taking  place  in  the  human  being  himself." 

The  Greek  spirit  transmutes  the  sensuous  into 
the  intellectual,  the  natural  into  the  spiritual. 

The  fundamental  principle  in  Greek  thought, 
is  the  fact  that  its  freedom  is  conditioned  by  and 
has  an  essential  relation  to  some  stimulus  supplied 
by  nature.  Greek  thought  is  created  by  objec- 
tivity, and  its  activity  consists  in  translating  the 
external  world  into  the  internal  world.  Spirit  is 
not  yet  entirely  free,  not  self-produced,  not  self- 
stimulating. 

"The  activity  of  spirit  does  not  yet  possess  in  itself  the  material 
and  organ  of  expression,  but  needs  the  excitement  of  Nature  and 

the  matter  which  Nature  supplies:  it  is  not  free, 
iel"pTOduced  self-determining    spirituality,    but    mere    naturalness 

formed  to  spirituality — spiritual  individuality.  The 
Greek  spirit  is  the  plastic  artist  forming  the  stone  into  a  work  of 
art.     In  this  formative  process  the  stone  does  not  remain  mere 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         315 

stone, — the  form  being  only  superinduced  from  without;  but  it 
is  made  an  expression  of  the  spiritual,  even  contrary  to  its  nature 
and  thus  transformed.  Conversely,  the  artist  needs  for  his  spiritual 
conceptions,  stone,  colors,  sensuous  forms  to  express  his  idea. 
Without  such  an  element  he  can  no  more  be  conscious  of  the  idea 
himself,  than  give  it  an  objective  form  for  the  contemplation  of 
others;  since  it  can  not  in  thought  alone  become  an  object  to  him.  '*   ^ 

The  central  thought  in  Greek  life  and  character 
is  individuality  conditioned  by  beauty.  This  idea 
in  realizing  itself  assumes  the  forms:  the  subjec- 
tive work  of  art — the  culture  of  the  man 
himself;  the  objective  work  of  art — the 
shaping  of  the  world  of  divinities;  the  political  work 
of  art — the  formation  of  the  constitution  and  the 
relations  of  the  individuals  composing  it. 

The  Subjective  Work  of  Art. — This  process  con- 
sists in  such  a  development  of  the  body  that  it 
becomes  a  perfect  organ  of  mind.  The  external, 
objective,  physical  body  is  made  to  harmonize  with 
the  internal,  free  activity  of  spirit.  In  games  and 
aesthetic  displays  nature  is  wrought  into  spirit  and 
the  corporal  is  made  to  harmonize  with  the  will. 
The  outer  corporal  individual  moves  in  tune  with 
the  inner  spiritual  being. 

The  Objective  Work  of  Art. — This  is  a  proc- 
ess of  shaping  the  divinities  and  making  the  idea 
assume  an  objective  existence.  The  essence  of  the 
Greek  divinity  is  spirit,  not  absolute  spirit,  but 
spirit  dependent  upon  outer  conditions.  The  divin- 
ity is  a  specialized  form  of  existence  and  manifests 
itself  in  the  sensuous  world.  The  Greek  gods  were 
personalities    imaged    in    stone,    in    human    form. 


316  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

They  were  manifested  in  human  form  because  no 
other  form  can  represent  so  well  the  spiritual.  It 
is  the  essential  nature  of  all  existence  to  manifest 
Greek  itsclf   lu   a   form   similar  to   itself.      The 

Religion  Greek  religion  was  defective,  because  its 
gods  were  a  permanent  manifestation  of  the  spirit- 
ual, while  the  Christian  God  (Christ)  is  a  temporary 
phase  of  the  divine.  Christ  died,  but  the  Greek 
gods  were  permanent  in  marble,  wood  and  metal. 
God  did  not  appear  to  the  Greeks,  for  spirit  had  not 
yet  attained  its  ultimate  freedom. 

"One  element  of  spirit  is  that  it  produces  itself — makes  itself 
what  it  is :  and  the  other  is,  that  it  is  originally  free — that  freedom 
is  its  nature  and  its  idea. " 

But  as  the  Greeks  had  not  attained  absolute 
freedom,  they  did  not  realize  spirit  as  a  universal 
principle.  Since  mere  subjectivity  was  not  under- 
stood by  the  Greeks  and  since  the  human  spirit 
had  not  attained  its  true  position,  the  Greek  spirit 
was  involved  in  fate  and  oracles. 

The  Political  Work  of  Art. — The  State  is  not 
a  subjectively  developed  and  beautified  physical 
existence,  nor  an  objectively  created  deity.  ^^It  is 
here  a  living,  universal  spirit,  but  which  is  at  the 
same  time  a  self-conscious  spirit  of  the  individuals 
composing  the  community.''  In  Grecian  political 
life  the  individual  has  not  attained  that  degree  of 
freedom  in  which  the  subjective,  social  unit  has 
become  dependent  upon  the  state.  In  Roman 
civilization  an  abstract  sovereign  power  rules  the 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         317 

people.    The  Greek  constitution  is  founded  The 

upon  a  customary  morality  rather  than  ^***® 

upon  a  subjective,  reflective  conviction  and  dis- 
position. The  abstract  state  was  alien  to  the 
Greeks  and  they,  therefore,  lived  in  accordance  to 
established  manners  and  customs.  The  Sophists 
introduced  subjective  reflection  and  thinking,  and 
declared  that  man  is  the  measure  of  all  things. 
Socrates  taught  that  thinking  is  a  guide  to  morality 
and  true  living ;  Plato,  that  the  good  can  be  realized 
only  in  the  state,  and  Aristotle,  that  the  final  pur- 
pose of  education  is  to  reproduce  in  the  soul  the 
institutional  world. 

This  awakening  of  the  inner  man  was  antago- 
nistic to  the  gods,  destroyed  the  state  founded  upon 
custom  and  wont,  and  inaugurated  a  new  civiliza- 
tion based  upon  inner  subjective  condi-  The 
tions.  The  social  unit  now  destroys  the  ^^'^^  ^""'^ 
customary  moral  life,  and  sets  up  a  state  dominated 
by  thought  and  freedom.  The  disintegrating  prin- 
ciple in  Greek  life  is: 

"Subjectivity  obtaining  emancipation  for  itself.  ...  In 
short,  subjectivity  comprehending  and  manifesting  itself,  threatens 
the  existing  state  of  things  in  every  department.  .  .  .  Thought, 
therefore,  appears  here  as  the  principle  of  decay  of  substantial 
morality;  for  it  introduces  an  antithesis,  and  asserts  essentially 
rational  principles." 

Rome. — The  duality  of  life  and  thought,  running 
through  racial  development  now  approaches  recon- 
ciliation and  freedom.  Greek  freedom  was  condi- 
tioned   by   the    natural,    but    in    Roman   thought, 


318  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

spirit  retreats  inward  upon  itself,  rethinks  itself  and 
externalizes  itself  in  the  form  of  an  abstract  political 
constitution,  which  governs  the  concrete  individual. 
Inner  This  abstract  principle  creates  a  personal- 

subjectivity  j^y  vevsus  Universality  and  establishes  the 
fundamental  principle  of  legal  right  and  personal 
property.  The  two  principles  of  Roman  civiliza- 
tion are  political  universality  and  abstract  free- 
dom. The  social  units  are  now  sacrificed  for  the 
abstract  universal  principle  of  the  state  which 
dominates  and  rules  the  concrete  individual.  The 
repellent  units  composing  the  nation  are  held 
together  by  that  abstract  freedom,  that  abstract 
state  which  rules  with  iron  power.  To  compensate 
for  this  severity  of  governmental  power,  the  Roman 
was  permitted  to  exercise  a  like  control  over  his 
family. 

Roman  religion  was  something  constrained,  some- 
thing concealed,  as  the  etymology  of  the  term 
religion  would  indicate.  This  inner  secret  of  mind, 
Roman  this    inner   struggle    of   soul,    this    stupid 

Religion  subjectivity  of  life,  this  melancholy  con- 
dition of  the  world,  this  era  of  hopelessness  and 
despair,  misery  and  dejection,  oppression  and  decay, 
pictures  the  fulness  of  time,  when  God  sent  his  Son, 
when  spirit  was  made  flesh,  and  when  peace  and 
reconciliation  came  to  the  world. 

Christianity. — In  the  progress  of  the  conscious- 
ness of  freedom,  self-consciousness  has  now  arrived 
at  that  stage  of  development  in  which  it  realizes 
within  itself  the  idea  of  spirit.    The  essential  nature 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         319 

of  spirit  is  that  it  produces  itself  and  in  its  second 
phase  (Christ)  it  separates  itself  from  itself. 

"Christ  has  appeared, — a  Man  who  is  God, — God  who  is  Man." 

This  implicit  unity  between  the  first  and  second 
person  in  the  trinity  exists  not  only  for  the  ** think- 
ing speculative  consciousness''  but  it  must  also 
exist  for  the  ^*  sensuous  representative  conscious- 
ness.'' This  sensuous  manifestation  of  Spirit  had 
a  temporary  existence  and  after  death,  Christ 
himself  says: 

"When  I  am  no  longer  with  you,  the  Spirit  will  guide  you 
into  all  truth." 

Through  the  second  person  in  the  trinity  The 

the  church  was  established.  Trinity 

"It  has  been  already  remarked  that  only  after  the  death  of  Christ 
could  the  Spirit  come  upon  his  friends;  that  only  then  were  they 
able  to  conceive  the  true  idea  of  God,  viz.,  that  in  Christ  man  is 
redeemed  and  reconciled:  for  in  him  the  idea  of  eternal  truth  is 
recognized,  the  essence  of  man  acknowledged  to  be  spirit,  and  the 
fact  proclaimed  that  only  by  stripping  himself  of  his  finiteness  and 
surrendering  himself  to  pure  self-consciousness,  does  he  attain 
the  truth. " 

In  human  development  finite  freedom  has  been 
annulled  in  order  that  Infinite  Freedom  may  be 
realized.  Christianity  not  only  harmonizes  finite 
mind  with  the  Infinite  Mind,  but  it  affords 

The 

a  fundamental  principle  for  the  foundation        Religious 
and  explanation  of  secular  relations.    The 
religious  consciousness  now  penetrates  all  civic  life, 
organizes  the   State,   creates   laws   and   establishes 


320  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

constitutions.  Christianity  harmonizes  nature,  mind 
and  God  and  gives  depth  and  meaning  to  every 
process  in  education. 

"It  was  then  through  the  Christian  religion  that  the  Absolute 
Idea  of  God,  in  its  true  conception,  attained  consciousness.  Here 
man,  too,  finds  himself  comprehended  in  his  true  nature,  given  in 
the  specific  conception  of  'the  Son.'  Man,  finite  when  regarded 
for  himself^  is  yet  at  the  same  time  the  image  of  God  and  a  fountain 

of  infinity  in  himself.  He  is  the  object  of  his  own 
J^®.    .  existence,  has  in  himself  an  infinite  value,  an  eternal 

Religion  destiny.     Consequently  he  has  his  true  home  in  a 

super-sensuous  world — and  infinite  subjectivity,  gained 
■only  by  a  rupture  with  mere  natural  existence  and  volition,  and 
by  his  labor  to  break  their  power  within  him.  This  is  religious 
self-consciousness. " 

In  and  through  the  subjective  inwardness  of  the 
Homan  world  and  in  and  through  the  principles  of 
Christianity,  rapid  progress  was  made  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  freedom.  These  Christian  principles 
must  now  penetrate  secular  affairs,  the  State,  the 
nation,  the  school  and  spiritual  freedom,  as  such, 
must  now  be  studied  and  explained,  as  evolved 
and  developed  in  the  German  world. 

The  German  World. — The  dualism  (the  objec- 
tive and  the  subjective)  inherent  in  the  develop- 
ment of  civilization,  now  becomes  reconciled  in 
Dualism  ^ud  through  the  principle  of  spiritual 
Reconciled  frgedom.  The  Germans  possessed  this 
idea,  as  a  basis  of  their  religion,  and  attempt  now 
to  make  it  free  and  concrete  in  their  civilization. 

'^The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  reached  maturity 
within  ere  they  directed  their  thoughts  and  energies 
outwards.''   The  Germans  absorbed  foreign  principles 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         321 

and  converted  them  into  their  own  life.  In  Chris- 
tianity the  individual  has  realized  his  true  being  in 
and  for  itself,  but  it  is  in  German  thought  that  we 
have  the  free  spirit,  the  new  spirit,  the  spirit  The  Free 
of  modern  times.     The  free  spirit  is  the  ^^"'^ 

central  energy  of  the  world,  out  of  which  are  evolved 
thought  and  reason,  and  those  norms  essential  to 
the  construction  of  the  State  and  its  constitution. 
Since  the  spirit  of  Christianity  is  the  great  civil- 
izing force  and  the  most  important  factor  in  human 
freedom,  it  will  be  interesting  to  study 
thoroughly  the   doctrine   of   the   church: 

"The  essence  of  the  Christian  principle  has  already  been  un- 
folded; it  is  the  principle  of  Mediation.  Man  realizes  his  Spiritual 
essence  only  when  he  conquers  the  Natural  that  attaches  to  him. 
This  conquest  is  possible  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  human 
and  the  divine  nature  are  essentially  one,  and  that  Man,  so  far  as 
he  is  spirit,  also  possesses  the  essentiality  and  substantiality  that 
belongs  to  the  idea  of  Deity.  The  condition  of  the  mediation  in 
question  is  the  consciousness  of  this  unity,  and  the  intuition  of  this 
unity  was  given  to  man  in  Christ.  The  object  to  be  attained  is, 
therefore,  that  man  should  lay  hold  on  this  consciousness,  and  that 
it  should  be  continually  excited  in  him. " 

The  Crusaders  undertook  to  find  the  present  and 
definite  existence  of  deity.  They  took  possession 
of  the  holy  places,  but  found  no  corporal  relics  of 
Christ.     The  principle  of  religion  is  not  The 

found  in  the  sensuous,  in  the  corporal,  in  Crusaders 
the  grave,  but  in  the  living  spirit  itself.  The  Cru- 
saders arrived  at  the  fact  that  the  essential  nature 
of  mankind  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  external,  but 
in  the  internal,  thinking  consciousness.     The  most 

21 


322  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

profound  principle  of  the  world  is  that  man  is  a 
self-conscious  thinking  being.  Two  principles  of 
life  grew  out  of  the  Crusades;  self-reliance  and 
spontaneous  activity. 

Spirit  in  its  final  evolution  must  be  estranged  in 
the  external  that  it  may  return  to  the  internal  and 
thus  attain  its  freedom.  Art  spiritualizes  by 
Evolution  transforming  the  internal  into  the  ex- 
of  Spirit  ternal.  It  is  by  means  of  this  outer 
manifestation  that  spirit  holds  communion  with 
spirit,  and  soul  is  brought  in  contact  with  soul. 
Spirit  further  craves  union  with  itself  and  seeks  to 
become  acquainted  with  its  otherness,  in  discoveries, 
in  the  Fine  Arts  and  in  the  Revival  of  Learning 
which  have  been  called  by  Hegel  ''the  hlush  of 
dawn^^  and  ''the  day  of  universality." 

The  Reformation. — While  some  were  attaining 
freedom  in  art,  some  freedom  in  commerce,  and 
some  freedom  in  learning,  Martin  Luther  set  forth 
the  doctrine  that  deity  is  embodied  in  subjectivity 
and  spirituality,  and  that  true  unity  with  God  is 
obtained  by  faith  and  spiritual  enjoyment.  Faith 
is  not  a  belief  in  the  sensuous,  but  a  subjective 
assurance  of  Eternal  Truth.  The  subjective  thinking 
soul  of  man  receives  unto  itself  this  Eternal  Energy. 

"The  development  and  advance  of  spirit  from  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  onwards   consists   in  this,   that  spirit,   having  now 

gained  its  consciousness  of  its  freedom,  through  that 
MedilTicMi        process  of  mediation  which  takes  place  between  man 

and  God — that  is,  in  the  full  recognition  of  the  objec- 
tive process  as  the  existence  of  the  divine  essence — now  takes  it 
up  and  follows  it  out  in  building  up  the  edifice  of  secular  relations. " 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         323 

The  central  doctrine  of  this  book  is: 

"By  nature  man  is  not  what  he  ought  to  be;  only  through  a 
transforming  process  does  he  arrive  at  truth. " 

The  Eclaircissement. — The  central  thought  in  this 
great  illuminating  period  of  the  world^s  history  is: 

"Man  is  not  free,  when  he  is  not  thinking;  for  except  when 
thus  engaged  he  sustains  a  relation  to  the  world  around  him  as  to 
another,  an  alien  form  of  being.  This  comprehension 
— the  penetration  of  the  ego  into  and  beyond  other  j^  ThinkiM 
forms  of  being  with  the  most  profound  self-certainty 
directly  involved  the  harmonization  of  being:  for  it  must  be  ob- 
served that  the  unity  of  thought  with  its  object  is  already  implicitly 
present,  for  reason  is  the  substantial  basis  of  consciousness  as  well 
as  of  the  external  and  natural." 

It  is  the  function  of  thought  to  make  the  world 
contain  what  spirit  is  and  it  is  the  function  of 
spirit  to  conceive  the  world  to  be  the  embodiment 
of  reason.  Mind  must  take  cognizance  of  what 
objective  reality  is  and  objective  reality  must  be 
analyzed  into  the  eternal  laws  upon  which  phe- 
nomena is  based.    At  this  time  G.  W.  F.  Hegel  says: 

"  It  seemed  to  men  as  if  God  had  but  just  created  the  moon  and 
stars,  plants  and  animals,  as  if  the  laws  of  the  universe  were  now 
established  for  the  first  time;  for  only  then  did  they  feel  a  real 
interest  in  the  universe,  when  they  recognized  their  own  reason  in 
the  reason  which  pervades  it.  The  human  eye  became 
clear,  perception  quick,  thought  active  and  interpreta-  in^Law 

tive.    .     .    .    The  laws  of  nature  were  recognized  as  the 
only  bond  connecting  phenomena  with  phenomena.     .     .     .    Nature 
is  a  system  of  known  and  recognized  laws;    Man  is  at  home  in  it, 
and  that  only  passes  for  truth  in  which  he  finds  himself  at  home; 
he  is  free  through  the  acquaintance  he  has  gained  with  nature. 


324  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 

Nor  was  thought  less  vigorously  directed  to  the  spiritual  side  of 
things:  right  and  morality  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  having  their 
foundation  in  the  actual,  present  will  of  man. " 

In  recognition  of  the  validity  of  the  laws  of  nature 
and  the  universal  law  of  reason  this  movement  of 
thought  and  history  is  known  as  Eclaircissement. 

Spiritual  Freedom  Realized. — Spiritual  freedom 
is  realized  by  the  student  working  out  his  own 
destiny,  by  willing  nothing  foreign  to  his  inner 
nature,  and  by  permitting  reason  to  dominate  and 
rule  his  life.  When  the  student  has  thus  progressed 
in  the  consciousness  of  freedom  he  realizes  that: 

"Never  since  the  sun  had  stood  in  the  firmament  and  the  planets 
revolved  around  him  had  it  been  perceived  that  man's  existence 
centres  in  his  head,  i.e.,  in  thought,  inspired  by  which  he  builds 
up  the  world  of  reality.  Anaxagoras  had  been  the  first  to  say  that 
notts  governs  the  world;  but  not  imtil  now  had  man  advanced  to 
the  recognition  of  the  principle  that  thought  ought  to  govern 
spiritual  reahty." 

It  is  a  glorious  mental  achievement  to  live  in 
the  light  of  reason,  to  reconcile  the  contradictory 
forces  in  life  and  to  attain  that  fundamental  spirit- 
ual principle  by  which  man  becomes  man.  Hegel 
tells  us  that  the  history  of  the  world  is  nothing 
but  the  development  of  the  idea  of  freedom.  If 
the  objective  is  in  itself  rational,  human  insight  and 
conviction  must  correspond  with  the  reason  which 
it  embodies,  and  then  we  have  the  other  essential 
element  —  subjective  freedom  —  also  realized. 

The  Fundamental  Process  in  Education  finds  a 
spiritual  energy  in  the  school  process,  in  the  teaching 


THE  SPIRITUAL  PROCESS:    MIND         325 

process  and  in  the  universal  process.  This  hidden 
power  is  the  energy  creating  the  school,  the  resi- 
dent force  immanent  in  instruction  and  the  abiding 
reality  in  the  humanistic  process.  This  spiritual 
principle  underlies  every  growth  process  in  teaching, 
determines  every  activity  in  thought  and  lies  at 
the  foundation  of  every  phase  of  human  life.  This 
same  activity  controls  the  deeper  logical  processes 
of  the  world,  is  the  ultimate  reality  of  nature  and 
constitutes  the  innermost  essence  of  mind.  The 
school  process  and  the  teaching  process  unified 
and  organized  by  the  universal  process  represent 
different  phases  in  the  progress  of  the  consciousness 
of  freedom.  The  fundamental  process  of  the  school, 
the  fundamental  process  in  teaching  and  the  funda- 
mental process  of  the  world  are  different  stages  in 
the  growth  of  the  spiritual  energy  which  has  for  its 
final  purpose,  human  freedom,  human  destiny, 
spiritual  freedom,  spiritual  destiny. 

"The  Truth  shaU  make  you  Free. " 


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INDEX 


PAGE 

Activity 158,  221 

evolution  of 157 

relational 211 

Adjective,  Pedagogy  of 163 

Adverb 160 

^sthetical,  the 98 

jEsthetic  process,  the 104 

Agassiz 79 

Altruism  versus  egoism 116 

Anaxagoras 214,  303 

Angelo,  Michael 252 

Apperception 195 

Architecture 105 

Aristotle 109,  161,  303,  317 

Arithmetic 203 

Arnold,  Matthew 101,  277 

Art 57,  72,  322 

Christian 254 

classic 106 

classification 105 

the  ideal  in 103 

objective  work  of 315 

political  work  of 316 

purpose  of 101 

romantic 107 

subjective  work  of 315 

symbolic 105 

BaUlie,  J.  B 242 

Bastian,  Dr 257 

Beautiful,  the 99 

school 98 

Beauty 315 

Beethoven 110 

Bird  of  Paradise 216 

Bowne,  Borden  P 214,  267 

Brahminism 307 

" Break,  break,  break" 147 

Broken  unity 43 

Browning 72,  101,  144,  244,  275 

Bryant,  William  Cullen 144 

Buddhism 308 


PAGE 

Caird,  Edward 75,  128 

John 118 

Campan,  Madam 78 

Campbell,  Dr 245 

Causes,  efficient  and  final. . .  .  183,  217 

Categorical  imperative 119,  122 

Categories 82 

China 305 

Christianity 28,  303,  318,  320 

Church 321 

Cicero 34 

Civics 246 

Class,  the 49 

Classification 50,  198 

Class  instruction 50 

Coleridge,  S.  T 213 

Composition 84,  175 

Concentration 77 

Concept,  Origin  of  ethical 119 

Conduct 44 

Conjunction 161 

Cosmic  principle 41 

process 57,  293 

Correlation 76,  83,  298 

Course  of  study 51 

Creationism 260 

Creative  energy,  the. .  .20,  21,  24,  184 

process,  the 20 

Cross  grade 51 

"Crossing  the  Bar" 127 

Crusaders,  the 321 

Curriculum,  the 74 

doctrines  of 78 

the  ideal 83 

Cycle 175,  192,  286 

Da  Vinci,  Leonardo 252 

Dante 280 

Davidson 55 

Definition,  principle  of 223 

DeGarmo,  Dr 80,  168 

Democratic  School  Government . .     42 

331 


332 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Design 185 

Development,  the 210,  220,  291 

illustrated 228 

the  highest  psychological. . . .   235 

Devotion  to  truth 34 

Dewey,  Dr.  John 139,  204 

Discipline 43,  135 

Divine  process,  the 236,  316 

Division,  principle  of 224 

Doctrine,  the 237 

"Dragon  Fly,  the" 177 

Drawing 297 

Dualism.  .142,  194,  216,  309,  317.  320 
Duties 118 

Eclaircissement 323 

Education. 36,  58,  68,  93,  95,  182,  264 

fundamental  process  in 324 

Educational  value 85,  134 

solidarity 89 

Egypt 311 

Emerson 101,  130,  244,  267 

Energy,  creative 24 

world 41 

•'Enoch  Arden" 153 

Enthusiasm 33 

Ethics 114 

law  of 114 

Ethical  organism 121,  123 

process 113 

the 113 

the  pupil 113 

Euler 204 

Evolutionism 121,  260 

Exercise,  opening 54 

Extensive  and  intensive 297 

Falckenburg 283 

Final  cause 22 

Finality  in  education 185,  290 

Fiske 97,  258 

Fitch 59 

Force 22 

unifying 45 

Fra  Angelica 251 

Freedom  20,  23,  35,  148,  221,  272,  323 

aesthetic 222,  294 

realized 24,  46,  319 

spiritual 48,  234,  302 


PAGB 

Geography 133,  228 

descriptive 230 

observational 229 

representative 230 

rational 231 

Germans 28,  303,  320 

Goethe 101,  111,  222,  280 

Government,  evolution  in 249 

Gradation,  good 52 

Grade,  the 51 

Grammar 36,  82,  162,  215 

Gray's  "Elegy" 71 

"Great  Stone  Face" 30 

Greece 313 

Greeks 27,  106,  303,  313 

Green,  T.  H 190 

Griggs.  Edward  Howard 271,  275 

Growth  movement,  the 136 

process,  the 130,  210 

Grube  method,  the 206 

Hamilton,  Sir  William 194 

Happiness 123 

Harris,  W.  T.  50,  81,  83,  201,  204,  217 

Hauser,  Kasper 96 

Hegel 28,  99,  227,  247,  303,  312 

Herbart 80,  195 

Herring 251 

Heuristic  method,  the 185,  206 

"Hiawatha " 152 

Hibben 57.  292 

History 83,  171,  216 

intermediate 172 

method  in 169 

primary 171 

Historic  purpose,  the 180 

Holmes 250 

Oliver  Wendell 189 

Honesty 124 

How  to  organize 53 

Hull  House 92 

Human  action  and  growth 267 

life,  tension  of 265 

Humanism 86,  98,  113 

Huxley 102,  257 

Hygiene 234 


Idea. 


a  process. . . . 
in  education. 


283 
286 


INDEX 


333 


PAGE 

Idealism 23,  194,  240 

Ideals 20,  24,  93,  269 

"Iliad,  "  Homer's 143,  279 

Imagination 196 

Incentives,  artificial  and  natural. .     56 

India 306 

Individual,  the 146,  200,  219,  226 

instruction 50 

Industry 124 

Infinitive 160 

Initiation 46 

Inner  law  of  school 22,  25,  38 

versus  outer 37,  54 

Institutional  ideas 171,  246 

Instructive  process 49 

Interest 138 

Interjection 161 

Intuition 202 

Intuitional,  the 119 

James,  William 78,  139 

Janet,  Paul 289 

Jevon 224 

Jones,  William  A 156 

Judea 310 

Judgment 201 

Justice rl..  .91,  125 

Kant 116,  119,  187,  198 

Keats 101 

Kedney 99 

Knowing,  the  immanent  principles 

of 213 

Knowledge 35,  75,  244 

academical  and  professional 

36,  132 

factors  in 244 

process 243 

related 75,  298 

Ladd.  G.  T 260 

Landseer 250 

Language 296 

Law,  fundamental 266 

of  life 30.  267 

of  the  school 41,  47 

the 190 

Laws  of  nature 22,  55 

Learning 75 


PAGE 

"Legend  of  Sleepy  HoUow"  ....   151 

Leibnitz 195 

Lesson 31 

Library  of  Congress 107 

Life 256,  269,  272,  275 

highest  ideals  of 271 

interpretation  of 273 

problem  of 256,  272 

process,  the 256 

theories  of 256 

Literature 109,  187,  273 

Logical  order 30 

process 283 

Longfellow 141,  144,  175 

' '  Lord  UUin's  Daughter  " 149 

Lotze 101,  258 

Lowell 144,  266 

Mace,  W.  H 171 

Man's  inner  nature 268 

Materialism 23 

Means  and  end 183 

Memory 196 

Method 67,  156 

analytic  and  synthetic 65 

concert 62 

concrete  and  abstract ....  65,  205 

consecutive 64 

deductive  and  inductive ....     66 

evolution 178 

in  History 169 

in  language 173 

lecture 64 

mind  movement  in 168 

objective 134,  156,  165 

oral  and  written 64 

Socratic 62 

subjective 166 

the  final  doctrine  of 178 

topic 64 

Mind 100,  165,  226,  231,  301 

development  of 210 

doctrines  of 237,  259 

fimction  of 100 

movement,  the 128,  130 

the  Infinite 188,  218 

the  law  in 166,  170 

Minto 224 

Model  School 37.  245 


334 


INDEX 


PAGE 

"  Moonlight  Sonata  " 110 

Moral  life,  the 126,  127 

process 113,  117 

Morality 81,  122 

Music 109 

Nash 24 

Natural  law 22,  217,  265 

Nature 22,  233,  293 

and  Mind 239,  294 

man's  inner  and  outer 268 

study 80,  295 

Newton 22,  69,  204 

Notion  in  education 290 

Noun 160 

Object  and  quality 213 

Organic 94,  238 

spiritual  unity 20 

Organization,  the 49,  54 

Orientals 27,  303 

Ormond,  A.  T 262,  302 

Otology,  the  science  of 232 

Outlining 225 

Parker,  Francis  W 79,  89,  93 

Painting 107 

Participle 160 

Particular 200 

Parts  of  speech 159 

Pedagogy 263,  292 

Pedagogical  inference 262 

Perception 194 

Persia 309 

Pestalozzi 206 

Philosophy 39,  56,  57,  67,  187 

Physiology 232 

Picture  Study 74,  250 

Planning  a  lesson 67 

Plato 101,  303,  313 

Poems,  tension  in 141 

types  of 141 

Poetry 108 

the  psychology  of 273 

Politeness 123 

Power,  the  hidden 262 

Praxiteles 106 

Preposition 161 

Primary  and  advanced 74 

Problem,  the 256 

the  Lock-step 52 


PAGB 

Process,  educational.  41,  46,  68,  73,  86 

100,  125,  220,  256 

the  cosmic 293 

the  creative 20 

the  governmental 247 

the  growth 130 

the  moral 117 

the  school 20,  122 

the  universal 283 

Program,  the 52 

Professionalism 36,  133 

Promotions 50,  52 

Pronoun 160 

Psychology 198,  203 

Psychological  order 30 

Psychology  of  subject 132 

PupU 25,  39,  41,  123 

self-government 41,  43 

Pupil's  thought-structure 131 

Purpose 23,  59,  180,  218 

the  historic 180 

the  supreme 185 

Quality 204,  214 

Quantity 204,  214 

Questions 63 

Race  experience 27 

"Rainy  Day,  the" 142 

Raphael 73,  103,  253 

Ratiocination 199 

Reading 137,  296 

first  movement  in 136 

fourth  movement  in 148 

lessons  in :  .    136 

second  movement  in 140 

mental  steps  in 137 

third  movement  in 141 

Reason,  the 202,  246,  286 

Immanent 56 

Recitation,  the 59,  92 

a  good 60 

beautiful 72 

length  of 61 

method  in 62 

purpose  of 59 

Reformation 322 

Rein 80 

Relations,  a  system  of 212,  239 

Rembrandt 252 

Reynolds 250 


INDEX 


335 


PAGE 

Roark,  R.N 78,  168 

Robertson 103 

Romans 27,  303 

Rome 317 

Rosenkranz 20,  100,  167 

Royce,  Josiah 240 

Sandison,  Howard 167,  176 

Schelling 293 

Scholarship 36 

School  City,  the 45 

the 19,  21,  29,  39,  86,  99,  117 

essence,  the 39 

ethics 123 

objective 23,  25,  49,  55 

management 41,  44 

organism,  the 22 

organization 49,  54 

purpose  of  the 55,  56 

process,  the 20,  122 

punishment 43 

the  subjective 49,  54 

unity,  the 25 

Schopenhauer 116 

Schwegler 85 

Science 91,  187 

the  unity  of 297 

Sculpture 106 

Self-activity 115,  158,  302 

Self-estrangement,  process  of . . . .    100 

Self-realization 

40,  47,  115,  120,  125,  270 

Self-sacrifice 116,  124 

Sensation 193 

Sentence,  the 162 

Shakespeare 280 

Shelley 144 

Shaw,  E,  R 81 

Sign,  laws  of 206 

Small,  A.  W 87,  90 

Snider,  D,  J 143,  203 

•'Snow  Image,  the" 150 

Social,  the 86 

center 92 

growth 95 

ideals 93 

life 92 

mind 50,  90 

progress 96 

science 87 


y  PAGE 

Society 121 

Principles  of 87 

Socrates 271,  303,  317 

Soul 262 

Soul-growth 83,  244 

unity 40 

Speer  method,  the 207 

Spencer,  Herbert 

58,  76,  90,  220,  241,  259 

Spinoza 176 

Spirit. 19,  203,  318 

concrete 311 

function  of 20 

nature  of 19,  322 

the  living 20 

Spiritual,  the 19 

freedom,  essentials  in 303 

freedom 58,  71,  302 

realized 324 

principle,  the 210,  237,  261 

process,  the 24,  301 

State,  the 247,  303 

•  •  Steamboat,  the  first " 170 

Struggle,  the  inner 24 

Studies,  primary  and  advanced . .     74 

socialized 91 

Subjects,  mental  processes  of . . . .    133 

Syllogism  in  thinking 227 

the  logical 226 

Teacher 29,  131 

an  ideal 30 

the  function  of 29,  136 

Teacher's  characteristics,  the. ...  32 
preparation,  the 35 

Teaching 130,  132,  183 

final  purpose  in 182,  186 

law  in 190 

movement  in 130 

organic  elements  in 191 

process,  the 130,  186 

principles  of 182 

purpose  of 180,  184 

Tennyson 76,  147,  176,  220,  276 

Tension 24,  117,  141,  265 

the  universal 21,  269 

Think  a  thing 168,  239 

foot 69 

number 69,  204 

the  class 223 

two-thirds 70 


336 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Thinking 192,  237 

and  Teaching 191 

genetically 192 

law  of 191 

movement  in 191,  193 

process 191 

stages  of 201 

the  doctrine  of 237 

Thought 19,  29,  197,  201 

and  Thing  Unified 165,  242 

Determines  Thing 240 

in  picture  study 250 

institutionalized 248 

in  the  thing 156.  170 

relations 78,  233 

Relativity  of 238 

returning  to  thought 242 

thinking    thought.  .169,  197,  230 

Titian 251 

"To  a  Water-fowl, " 144 

Tompkins,  Arnold 

51,  85,  114,  136,  141,  167 

Traducianism 260 

Training,    professional   and   aca- 
demic      35 

Transcendentalism 120 

Trinity,  the 319 

Trowbridge 282 


PAOB 

Truth 34,  243 

Truthfulness 124 

Understanding 198 

Unifying  force,  the 45 

process,  the 168 

Unity,  divine 188 

in  difference 25,  128,  186,  299 

living 167 

organic 238,  254 

the  mysterious 237 

viltimate : 26 

Universal  process,  the 283 

Synthesis 45 

the 146,  199,  219,  245 

Utilitarianism 120 

Verb 161 

Washington  Monument 221 

White,  E.  E 56,  63,  79 

Wordsworth 102,  144 

World  Knowledge 285 

movement 202,  299 

process 283 

the  German 320 

Work  of  art 72 

ZiUer 80 

Zoraster 309 


XB  34925 


^4.^.Hr)2 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


